Guilds

The Ahọrhan guild helps to purify the land whenever an abomination has been committed (Inneh, 2007, p.115 ). Therefore, its members are responsible for the sanctification of the land. The guild belongs to the Iweguae Palace society. They perform rituals of purification whenever there is a violation of taboos, including sodomy, suicide, wilful destruction of farmland or houses or any act considered sacrilegious, like the killing of a pregnant woman, which the Benin term ‘Kirukuva’, the worst of all crimes.

It is believed that Ọba Ẹsigie (1504–50) established this guild when there were earthquakes, storms and man-eating monsters that posed severe challenges to the Benin people. According to tradition, Elowe N’Ugbọha, who was related to Ọba Ẹsigie’s mother, sought the services of a diviner called Ogiomodu from Uzea in Ishan. Ogiomodu and his people, through their magical powers, were able to put an end to the menaces that befell Benin City (Eweka, 1992, p.75 ). Ọba Ẹsigie commanded the diviners to be retained in Benin City, and they were placed under the care of the Ezama from Ogbe quarters. They were relocated to Ogbelaka quarter, where they became a guild headed by an Okao.

The duty of this guild is to perform the purification ritual of the women in the harem after the royal obsequies. The head of this guild is Chief Aragua, whose title is hereditary. There is also a similar title at Udo called the Aragua of Udo (Eweka, 1992, pp.64&93 ).

The Avbiogbẹ are the commissioners for land, bell ringers, police force and town criers of the kingdom (Egharevba, 1949, p.30 ). The members of this guild perform the duty of sanctification and allocation of land. They announce new laws, declarations of war and treaties of peace. They accompany a new Enogie to his domain to announce his appointment and demarcate the territory, setting his boundaries with neighbouring villages. The Avbiogbẹ guild is considered to be one of the oldest guilds in Benin Kingdom, dating back to the first Ogiso period. The head of this guild is called Okao Avbiogbẹ or Okao-Iyoboghae, because he also heads the Iyoboghae section of the guild. The Okao Avbiogbẹ is appointed by the Ọba. The guild is divided into three sections. The other two are the Ewagha group of Avbiogbẹ, headed by the Okao-Ewagha, who is also appointed by the Ọba, and the Ẹdoghirhia, headed by Okao-Ẹdoghirhia, whose title is hereditary (Eweka, 1992, pp.57-58 ).

The Efa and Emẹhẹ are believed to be the original dwellers of Benin. The Benin people refer to the land as Otọ Efa, Otọ Emẹhẹ – the land of Efa and the land of Emẹhẹ. These groups are said to have arrived in Benin with Ọbagodo, the first Ogiso. Tradition says they were sent by God to accompany this Ogiso (king of the sky) and they settled in the area now known as Benin. This is why Edo people still refer to Benin City as Otọ Efa, Otọ Emẹhẹ (Omoregie, 1997b, pp.14&48 ). The Efa are the priests and diviners of the land. Ọba Ẹwẹdo appointed the Efa as the worshippers of the gods of earth and good luck for the royal family. Five titles have been created under this guild: Ogiefa N’Ozẹbẹn, Ogiefa N’Omuekpo, Ezele, Orọbato and Aighọbahi. The guild is headed by Ogiefa N’Ozẹbẹn (Eweka, 1992, p.74 ).

This is the guild of the royal Oro dancers who perform certain rites during Ugie ceremonies. Ọba Ẹsigie is credited with starting the guild. Tradition says that the Idah people Ọba Ẹsigie captured after he defeated the Attah of Idah were later formed into a guild. Ọba Eweka II created the non-hereditary title of Obọbaifo to head the guild (Eweka, 1992, p.60 ; Inneh, 2007, p.113 ).

The Emẹhẹ are priests that perform rituals to ensure that peace and tranquillity exist in the land. They are responsible for important daily ceremonies in the Ọba’s harem. The Emẹhẹ perform rituals to ensure that evil spirits are kept away from the harem and that it is peaceful and tranquil. The Emẹhẹ are divided into two sections: Emẹhẹ Iweguae and Emẹhẹ Iwonyimwin. The Emẹhẹ escort the Ọba to the palace after the coronation ceremony (Eweka, 1992, p.74 ).

These are the royal storekeepers and bead makers of the kingdom. The members of this guild work behind closed doors in the palace chambers. The beads they produce from coral and red stone are used by the Ọba in the different palace ceremonies. The Ọba awards these beads to chiefs according to their ranks and to non-chiefs and women as a dispensation of honour from the monarch (Agbontaen-Eghafona, 1997, p.25 ; Inneh, 2007, pp.104-107 ).

This guild performs special duties in the harem as domestic helpers of the queens. Its members are the servants of the Ọba’s wives. This guild is considered unique because the members have to perform a certain purification ceremony before they can marry someone outside the guild. It is headed by an Odionwere (Eweka, 1992, p.80 ; Inneh, 2007, p.104 ).

They are the keepers of medicine for ritual purifications that drive evil spirits away from the path of the king. The head of this guild is Ohẹn-Awan, who is believed to have followed Prince Oranmiyan from Uhe. He keeps the ancestral staff known as Ukhurhe-Ogun. At Ugie-Erhọba, Ohẹn-Awan officiates at the ceremony, and he is also a member of the Ihogbe guild (Eweka, 1992, p.77 ; Inneh, 2007, p.104 ).

Members of this guild serve as the monarch’s bodyguards during public ceremonies. They maintain law and order; they dance and sing war songs. During ceremonies, they hold bangles for protection and fortification. The guild’s members are drawn from all the palace societies and they feature prominently at royal ceremonies. According to tradition, it is said that Prince Odogbo, who was the only son of Ọba Ehẹngbuda (c. 1578–1606) was so handsome that people believed him to be a woman.

After consulting Egie, a female sorceress, to prepare and apply a special charm to make the prince’s male organ develop properly, Ọba Ehẹngbuda commanded the prince to walk nuked from Uselu to Ogbe to dispel the rumour. All the male attendants were also naked. They had a beautiful special haircut for the procession. As a result of this hairdo, they were referred to as Ifieto (hair cutters). The unusual procession of young men became the palace group Ifieto (Ekhator-Obogie, 2018, p.285 ; Eweka, 1992, p.65 ; Inneh, 2007, p.104 ).

These are architects and sculptors responsible for the construction of houses and the creation of the mud relief of the Ọba Palace. Agbontean-Eghafona (2018 ) stated that this guild was probably responsible for the reconstruction of the Ọba Palace after it was burnt down during the pre-colonial civil wars (Uwafiokun–Ogun war of the fifteenth century and Ogbebor–Osemwende war before 1816).

It appears this guild was organised whenever the need for them arose, as there were no permanent members or leadership organisation. During the reign of Ọba Akenzua II, members were drawn from all the villages to reconstruct the Ọba Palace.

This guild of drummers originated during the reign of Ọba Esigie after a war at Udo and is under the general supervision of Chief Uwanguẹ. They perform at Ugie and other palace ceremonies (Eweka, 1992, p.64 ; Inneh, 2007, p.104 ).

They are the royal carvers and carpenters (Egharevba, 1949, p.30 ). This guild for traditional wood and ivory carvers was established by Ọba Ẹwuare I (c. 1440). The head of this guild is the Ehọlọ N’Igbesanmwan responsible for supervising the wood carvers; his title is hereditary, and he is a member of the Uzama N’Ibiẹ. The next in rank is Inẹ N’Igbesanmwan, who is the supervisor of the ivory carvers, followed by Ọbasoye N’Igbesanmwan, Ọbazoro, Ọbasohan and Ẹdoguọba.

Apart from the Eholor N’Igbesanmwan, who is also an Uzama N’Ibiẹ and whose position is hereditary, the other titles are by appointment (Eweka, 1992, p.57 ). This guild records events through the motifs carved in elephant tusks and wooden panels reflecting the achievements of the Ọba who commissioned the works (Inneh, 2007, p.107 ).

The Igbuzẹbu are a guild of royal dancers whose origin is traced to Ọba Orhogbua’s reign (1550–78). It was said that the eldest son of Ọba Orhogbua, the crown prince (Edaikẹn), obtained a slave from Ijebu-Ode, who was a very good dancer. This slave accompanied him on a war expedition along the coast (probably in Eko, now known as Lagos). The Edaikẹn was so fascinated by the dance that he learnt it.

When Ọba Orhogbua returned from the war, the servant Akere, a member of Iweguae Palace society, accused the Edaikẹn of performing the Oro dance. It was forbidden for an Edaikẹn to perform an Oro dance, since that meant he was wishing doom for his father. Because it was not an Oro dance, the Ọba commanded the Edaikẹn to perform it in public in order to prove his innocence. When he performed the dance, the people were so fascinated that they gave him a shout of ovation. Having discovered the accusation was false, the people seized Akere, and he was killed. The Edaikẹn’s mother, who believed her son was found guilty after she heard the shouting, drowned herself in Okuwu, the palace pond at the harem. These Igbuzẹbu dancers were formed into a guild and the Ọba has since retained them. The guild is headed by an Odionwere (Eweka, 1992, p.61 ; Inneh, 2007, p.113 ).

As stated by Eweka (1992 ), the Iguisi guild was probably formed by Ọba Ọzọlua to render private services. Its members are not publicly known, and they carry out secret tasks for the Ọba. As the secret service of the kingdom, they offer protection for the Ọba and support the promotion of internal cohesion. The head of the guild is Eson N’Oghaevbo (Eweka, 1992, pp.62-63 ; Inneh, 2007, p.113 ).

This is the guild of iron workers or specialised iron sculptors (blacksmiths). Within the guild, societies and groups are organised according to the nature and products of their craft.

The first group is Igun n’ekhua or Igun Adaha, the makers of Ada and Eben; it is headed by the Ine N’Igun N’Ekhua.

The second group is the Igun Eyaen n’ugie, the makers of the Osun staff (Osogan), cutlass (opia), executioner’s knife (oho) and oil lamp (urukpa n’asivbobo); it is headed by the Obazuaye N’Eyaen N’Ugie.

The third group is the Igun Iwegie, responsible for general blacksmithing; the leader of the group is Eholor N’Iwegie.

And lastly, the Igun Ugboha are the producers of door keys (Isahen), staple bolts (asigbe) and iron chains (eghan), and are headed by Obasogie N’Ugboha. This guild produces knifes (ero), hammers (umonmon), anvils (ematon n’okuan), tongs (awan) and cutters (afian) (Egharevba, 1949, p.30 ; Eweka, 1992, p.56 ; Agbintaen-Eghafona, 1997, p.25&38 ; Inneh, 2007, p.112 ; Agbontaen-Eghafona, 2018, p.224 ).

This is the bronze or brass-casters guild. It might be considered one of the most important guilds in Benin, as the kingdom’s fame of Benin lies in both its ancient well-developed governmental system and its artworks which intrigued the Europeans who encountered the Benin people in the late fifteenth century. There are several accounts of the origin of this art, but some of the earliest artefacts recorded are the Ada and Ẹbẹn, which were introduced by Ogiso Ere, the second Ogiso. Though there are different arguments about the origin of this craft, the Benin people believe that it was introduced or derived from Ife.

The name Igueghae, the first leader of the bronze casters guild (who is claimed to have been sent from Ife), sounds more like an Edo name than a name of Yoruba origins. From ancient times, the associations of craftsmen supplied the Ọba’s specific needs in return for monopoly rights in their various trades. Membership of this guild is restricted to the families of Igun quarter who are descendants of the Ineh and Osa families of Igun-Ẹrọnmwọn. The head of the guild is the Ine N’Igun-Ẹrọnmwọn. The Ine N’Igun-Ẹrọnmwọn and the Ihama N’Igun-Ẹrọnmwọn were made members of the Uzama N’Ibie by Ọba Esigie. The title of Ihama N’Igun-Ẹrọnmwọn was created by Ọba Ẹwuare (Egharevba, 1949, p.30 ; Eweka, 1992, pp.53-56 ; Agbintaen-Eghafona, 1997, p.25&38 ; Inneh, 2007, p.112 ; Agbontaen-Eghafona, 2018, p.224 ).

Descendants of the Ọba’s family that accompanied Oronmiyan from Ife, the Ihogbe are custodians of the shrines of the departed Ọbas of Benin Kingdom. Agbontaen-Eghafona stated that this guild was created to replace, or perform the roles of, the defunct Ughoron; they became the priest and custodian of the ancestral royal altars as well as recorders of the history and tradition of the monarchy.

The Ihama N’Ihogbe is the leader of the Ihogbe, while the Isekhurhe is considered the leader of the sub-group Ihogbe n’Ore. The Ihama was the chief priest of Erinmwindu before the reign of Ọba Ẹwẹdo, who bestowed the ritual duties of the Ihama on the Isekhurhe. The Ihogbe are also given the responsibility of keeping records of the Ọbas’ ancestral altars (Ugha erha’Ọba). During Ugie festivals, the Ihogbe are responsible for the ritual propitiation of the spirits of the departed Ọbas as well as anointing the Ọba’s head with the blood of the sacrificed animal. These rites are believed to protect the Ọba against all evil. Although the head of the Ihogbe is Ihama, these ceremonies were headed by the Isekhurhe (created by Ọba Ẹwẹdo c. 1255–80) until Ọba Ẹwuare II changed it in 2016 (Agbontaen-Eghafona, 2018, p.65 ; Inneh, 2007, p.115 Eweka, 1992, p.72 ).

Akohen is an end-blown ivory flute. The flute players are a group of the Ọba’s musicians known as Ikpakohen. This guild was established by Ọba Eresoyen. The Ufere is a term that can also be used to describe the Edo flute within and outside Benin City (Inneh, 2007, p.115 ; Eweka, 1992, p.64 ).

This is the guild of royal drummers led by the Omuemu-Ọba. A similar guild exists at Uselu, led by Omuemu-Edaikẹn. The members usually perform ritual and ceremonial drumming during royal festivals and funeral ceremonies. Inneh (2007 ) noted that ‘not all chiefs dance to these drums’. The Ikpema belong to Iwebo Palace society. The Kinema reside at Ikpema quarters off Agbado Street in Benin City (Eweka, 1992, p.58 ).

The Ikpezikẹn guild was established by Ọba Ẹwuare I. The members play a flute made from ivory (Akohen), a flute made from bamboo (Ufẹrẹ), and a wind instrument or flute called Ezikẹn. The Ikpezikẹn play at Ugie ceremonies for the Ọba and chiefs (Inneh, 2007, p.115 ; Eweka, 1992, p.64 ).

The Ikpokpan guild was established by Ọba Ehẹngbuda. Its members are the caretakers of Ehẹngbuda, Ediọn Emẹhẹ and Ediọn n’Iweguae Shrines. They are also linked or associated with the Ogbelaka in the performance of various dance ceremonies (Eweka, 1992, p.75 ).

This guild is responsible for caring for and rearing cattle for the Ọba. Its head is called Okao. Members of this guild claimed to have originally come with Prince Oronmiyan from Uhe (Ife). They are located at Iriẹmila Street, off Cook Road, off Akpakpava Road, Benin City (Inneh, 2007, p.80 , Eweka, 1992, p.115 ).

This guild was responsible for the production of leather boxes and other leather wares for the Ọba Palace. The Ogiamien was once the head of the guild of Isekpokin. According to Egharevba (1949 ), this guild is headed by an Okao. He was renowned for the production of the royal throne (ekete). The origin of this guild dates to the Ogiso dynasty. Apart from the royal throne (ekete) and cylindrical boxes (ekpokin), the produced items such as amulets and charms, seats and scabbards for swords, leather fans and leather baskets (Agbontaen-Kokunre, 1997, 39 ; Agbontaen-Eghafona, 2018, p.224 ; Inneh, 2007, p.109 ; Eweka, 1992, p.60 ).

The Isiẹmwẹnro are the bodyguards of the Ọba and also serve as the royal police and army. The guild was established by Ọba Ẹwuare I. Its members refer to themselves with pride as asaka nọ sa oghiọn Ọba (the soldier ant that sting’s the Ọba’s enemy) (Osadolor, 2004, p.94). It is the duty of the Isiẹmwẹnro to execute prisoners, but not outside the period of festivals and ceremonies. They have nine title holders in the group under the leadership of Ekeghughu and Ekeghian. The titles of Amaghizemwen and Obadolaye are hereditary while the others are appointed.

This guild evolved as a military during the interregnum between the collapse of the Ogiso dynasty and emergence of the Ọba era. During this period, the Edohen and Ero provided leadership for the royal guards (Odibos). When these Uzama nobles withdrew their support for the Isiẹmwẹnro, Ọba Ẹwẹdo took over their settlement and sent them to a permanent located opposite the Ogiamiẹn house to watch the activities of the anti-royalists (Osadolor, 2004, p.103 ). The royal guards wear a special body marking on their upper arm called Ọgala Ẹwuare’,_ _meaning Ẹwuare’s spear (Osadolor, 2004, p.106 ). The Isiẹmwẹnro quarter also served as the arsenal of the royal army, which was known as amaghizemwen, a corruption of the Portuguese word _amazien. _European weapons were stored and kept under the custody of the leaders of this guild (Inneh, 2007, p.115 ; Eweka, 1992, p.70 ; Egharevba, 1949, p.31 ).

The members of this guild are descendants of the Chief Osuan of Benin Kingdom, who is the priest of the Ora Shrine, which is the god of fertility (Inneh, 2007 ). They play important leading roles during the coronation of an Ọba at the Eghute and Ododua festivals. These priests propitiate their god with the power and authority of the Ọba. The Iviosuan and the Iviosa are responsible for the deities of Uwen and Ora, also known as Ebo n’Edo (Agbontaen-Eghafona, 2018, p.76 ). The Osuan lives outside the walls of the city.

The guild serves the monarch as a fertility cult within the palace and the head is called Odionwere. They claim to have accompanied Oronmiyan during the first restoration of the monarchy in 1200 (Eweka, 1992, p.80 ) According to Egharevba (1949 ), they are the caretakers of the Ọba’s children, bearers of the royal corpse and custodians of the royal farm (Inneh, 2007, p.115 ).

The members of this guild are descendants of the Chief Osa of Benin Kingdom. They and the Iviosuan are responsible for the deities of Uwen and Ora, also known as Ebo n’Edo. They play important leading roles during the coronation of an Ọba at the Eghute and Ododua festivals. According to Inneh (2007 ), the Osa is the priest of the Uwen Shrine of the Ọba. Uwen is the god that prevents injuries and heals war wounds. The Osuan is the priest of the Ora Shrine, who is the god of fertility. The Iviosuan and the Iviosa are responsible for the deities of Uwen and Ora, also known as Ebo n’Edo (Agbontaen-Eghafona, 2018, p.76 ). These priests propitiate these gods with the power and authority of the Ọba. The Osa live at Igun (Aisien, 2012, p. ; Inneh, 2007, p. ; Eweka, 1992, p.58 ).

This guild of leopard hunters was established by Ọba Ẹwuare I to organise the hunting of leopards that he needed to propitiate his head annually. Tradition has it that one day while Prince Ogun (later Ọba Ẹwuare I) was in the forest during his exile, he woke up to discover he was lying on a boa constrictor while a leopard was on a tree branch over his head. He was able to kill both creatures and sacrificed them to his head. After the prince became Ọba Ẹwuare, he formed a guild of hunters to catch leopards and bring them to him for an annual sacrifice to his head for good luck.

The guild is divided into two groups, with one at Iyeke-Ikpọba and the other at Iyeke-Ogba. The two branches are headed by individual Odionwere, and whoever is senior among the two Ediọnwere usually moves to Benin to be made Okao. Additional duties of the Ivẹkpẹn include the slaughtering and sharing of the animal. The flesh of the leopard is divided among members of the guild and the palace society to which the guild belongs, while the skin of the leopard belongs to the Ọba. Since the advent of colonialism, the functions of the Iviẹkpẹn have been modified over the years, but the ritual associated with the various ceremonies continues to form an important part and practice of Edo cultural heritage (Eweka, 1992, p.63 ).

The Iwaranmwẹ are the royal butchers who kill the sacrificial animals during rituals. This guild is headed by the Ehọndọ (Egharevba, 1949, p.31 ; Agbontaen-Eghafona, 2018, p.228 ).

Members of this guild are responsible for performing specific ritual prayers during the Ague festival. Inneh (2007 ) stated that they offer special prayers for a good harvest for the Ọba and peace in the harem. The members of this guild have a separate apartment in the palace called Ogua (Inneh, 2007, p.115 ; EWeka,1992, p.80 ).

This guild was created by Ọba Ehẹngbuda and consists of priests who officiate at the rituals in the harem headed by the Olotu (Eweka, 1992, p. 80 ; Agbontaen-Eghafona, 2018, p.228 ).

Tradition has it that during the exile of Prince Ogun (who later became Ọba Ẹwuare I) some of his principal companions were Ake (a great archer), Ogan (a marksman with his spear), and Okhuaihe (a powerful medicine man). After Prince Ogun became Ọba Ẹwuare I, he deified Akẹ N’Isi and sent his bows and arrows to Benin, where he organised a guild to act as the custodians of his old friend’s relics. During the Isiokuo festival dedicated to Ake N’Isi sacrifices are made to Ogun (the god of iron) and instruments of war.

Members of this guild are usually from Ilobi in Isi, which is known for the manufacturing of poison for arrows. The head of the guild is an Odionwere, while the priest of Ake Shrine in Benin is Eriyo, a title created by Ọba Ewuare I (Aisien, 2012, p.119 ; Inneh, 2007, p.113 ; Eweka, 1992, pp.59-60).

The members of this guild are the caretakers of the Ẹbo N’Ẹdo and Ogun Shrines (Iron deity). The guild was established by Ọba Ẹwuare I and is headed by the Odionwere (Agbontaen-Eghafona, 2018, p.227 ; Eweka, 1992, p.62 ).

This guild was established by Ọba Esigie (c. 1504–50). It is believed that it included two Portuguese men named Ava and Uti who accompanied Esigie to the Idah war and Edo individuals who learned how to read and write and were instructed in celestial navigation while enslaved in Portugal. Members of this guild also protected Ọba Esigie when high-ranking Uzama chiefs attempted to challenge his right to the throne. Thus, members of this guild were tasked with astrology and meteorology as well as looking after Portuguese cannons in Benin City.

At Ugie festivals Avan and Uti stand as ceremonial guards against the Uzama. The head of the guild is an Odionwere (Agbontaen-Eghafona, 2018, p.227 ; Aisien, 2012, pp.86-87 ; Inneh, 2007, p.113 Eweka, 1992, p.62 , Egharevba, 1968, p.28 ).

The Iwowa guild is a section of the Ihogbe. They are traditionally in charge of the collection of dues for the use of any river in Benin Kingdom. They also prepare the sepulchre of the Ọba. The guild is headed by the Chief Ogua and assisted by an Okao. They were the riverside tax collectors (Inneh, 2007, p.115 ; Eweka, 1992, p.76 ).

The Odiọnmwan is the guild of ceremonial executioners headed by the guild’s Okao, a member of the Ukebo society. Members of this society were the only people permitted to carry out executions according to law. By tradition, the Osodin and Elema were the chiefs responsible for selecting victims for execution among Eseghan (prisoners) in the Ewedo (prison).

The executioners were under strict orders not to mention that their victims were killed. When their service is needed, they are called, ‘Where is the Odiọnmwan?’ meaning, ‘Where is the executioner?’ These days the Odiọnmwan only carry out their functions on sacrificial animals (Egharevba, 1949, p.31 ; Eweka, 1992, pp.58&64 ).

The Ogbelaka are the royal bards of Benin Kingdom. They arrived with Ọba Ẹwẹdo (1255–80) from the Ugbo area of the Yoruba culture in present Ondo state. They settled in one of the earliest quarters of Benin City (Ogbelaka), and were later joined by people captured during the Idah (Igala) war. It is imperative to state that this guild, despite the titled chiefs among them, is headed by an Odionwere, a non-titled chief. As stated by Aisien (2012, ), the songs sung by this guild during royal ceremonies are unintelligible to the ordinary Benin people because they are age-old traditional songs in the Olukumi language (Aisien, 2015b, pp.124-129 ; Aisien, 2012 p.30 ; Eweka, 1992, pp.51-53 ; Agbontaen-Eghafona, 2004, p.72 ).

The Ogbesasa guild was founded by Ọba Ẹwuare I. Formerly they lived in the Iwebo court, but they are now re-settled at Ogbelaka. They serve as the shield bearers of the Ọba. The titles under the Ogbesasa include: Elukoton, Elukohi, Esegbua, Okarogbae and Ekoghae. They are very close to the Irhuasa, who in ancient times were responsible for making the Asa (battle shield) from elephant skin. The Irhuasa lived at the present site of the Military Base Hospital along Airport Road (Aisien, 2015b, pp.132-133 ; Eweka, 1992, p.53 ).

Ọba Akenzua I (c. 1713) founded the Oguanogbe (Oguan’Ogbe) guild, and their main responsibility was to administer the sasswood ordeal to those accused of witchcraft, with the approval of the Ọba. The guild was headed by an Odionwere until the reign of Ọba Akenzua II (1933–78), who created two titles: Osagiọbato and Ọbayanto (Eweka, 1992, p.76 ; Inneh, 2007, p.115 ).

This guild belongs to the Igun-Ematon but renders its service in the Ọba’s harem. Its members are mainly Ogun priests headed by the Ine N’Igun-Ematon. The Ogunimwẹnfo is part of the Ibiwe society, and is a guild of Igun priests headed by an Ọdiọnwere (Eweka, 1992, p.80 ; Inneh, 2007, p.115 ).

This is the weaver’s guild. Its members are affiliated with the Iwebo Palace society. They are located at Owina quarters along Sokponba Road. The guild has three titles, namely its leader, Okao Owina N’Ido, Obazona Owina N’Ido and Esamegho Owina N’Ido. There is a female title in the guild, Okaiseto. The Ownia plays a significant role in the production of elegant regalia for the Ọba of Benin (Agbontaen-Eghafona, 2018, p.224 ; Inneh, 2007, p.109 ; Eweka, 1992, p.58 ; Egharevba, 1949, p.31 ).

Uhunmwunidumwun means ‘head of street or quarter’ of the area southeastern of Benin City, which is the original site of Benin. The inhabitants are the caretakers of the original site, which is now a hallowed ground, and people are forbidden from entry. The head of this guild is an Okao (Agbontaen-Eghafona, 2003, p.71 ; Inneh, 2007, p.115 ; Eweka, 1992, p.76 ).

This is one of the oldest custodian groups or societies in Benin Kingdom. They are caretakers of the shrine devoted to the magical ‘snail shell’ believed to have been used for the creation of the land on which humans now reside. The snail shell is said to have been buried at the spot where the Ukhegie stands.

Members of this guild are keepers of the shrine in memory of the ‘shrine/altar of the earth/land’. They are considered to be one of the oldest guilds on Edo land. There are two hereditary titles in the guild: Ogiọba is recognized to have carried the snail shell, and Ine N’Igun was put there by Ọba Ẹwuare to function as a supplier of oil lamps to Edaikẹn on his way to Benin to visit the Ọba (Agbontaen-Eghafona, 2003, p.73 ; Inneh, 2007, p.113 ; Eweka, 1992, p.62 ).

This group was formed by Ọba Ẹwuare I, who, as Prince Ogun, requested the help of Osun to stop the fire that engulfed Benin City as a result of the battle between him and his brother Uwaifiokun, who usurped the throne. The prince made this request on a farm, and in appreciation of it being granted, the farm where yams were stored became known as Unueru, which means ‘entrance of the yam barn’. The Unueru guild belongs to Iweguae Palace society. They are the keepers of the Osun Shrine. This guild is headed by an Odionwere who is knowledgeable in the powers inherent in roots and herbs (Agbontaen-Eghafona, 2018 p.224 ; Inneh, 2007, p.115 ; Eweka, 1992, p.76 ).

These are the royal physicians and doctors of the Benin Kingdom. The society has four groups:

1. The Iwegie established by Ọba Ẹwuare I;
2. Idunmwenbo established by Ọba Ehẹngbuda;
3. Iwehẹn established by Ọba Ohuan n’Odogbo; 4)Emwiobọmwan established by Ọba Akẹnzua I (Eweka, 1992, pp.70-72 ).

Each section is headed by an Ọdiọnwẹrẹ. The leader of the guild is the Chief Eguezigbọn assisted by Chief Ọbazuhunmwunuwa. The Ebo and Iwegie are the senior royal doctors and diviners, while the Ewaisẹ are the junior physicians (Ọba’s doctors and diviners) headed by the Eguezigbon (Egharevba, 1949, p.30 ).

This is the guild that interns the remains of the monarch during the period of emwinekhua (the big rituals) (Egharevba, 1949, p.30 ). It is headed by the Okao-Ẹbẹn and was established by Ọba Ẹwuare I (1440–73) to preserve the sacred corpse during the royal obsequies. Many members fled Benin during the reign of Ọba Esigie (1504–50) after they refused the Ọba’s request to perform the same ceremony for his mother that is performed exclusively for the Ọba. But members of the guild maintained that the ritual ceremony was just for the Ọba. They later settled at Igubẹn in the Esan area. Ọba Akenzua I (1713–35) revived the guild and made the Okao-Ẹbẹn the head. This guild, which has eight sections, resides in the area of Ẹbẹn Street near James Watt Street (Eweka, 1992, pp.69-70 ).

This group consists of male children who are related to or descendants of past Ọbas. They are the custodians of Erinmwindu (Ancestral Idu Shrine) and the members of the royal family who are not honoured with Enogie titles but are sent to Ẹvbiẹmwẹn quarter. It is believed that this group was formed by Ọba Ẹwuare I to look after the princes who founded homes outside the city after the demise of an Ọba. This was a convenient way for Ọba Ẹwuare I to keep these princes under surveillance and make them feel comfortable (Eweka, 1992, p.75 ).

The members of this guild live in a town called Amufi from where they come to Benin City to perform their duty for the Ọba during ceremonies (Egharevba, 1970, p. ; Eweka, 1992, p.76 ). They are acrobats and take care of birds for the Ọba and are members of the Iweguae Palace society. The guild was formed by Ọba Ewuare I to capture the fish eagles, which were useful for sacrifices in the Ọba Palace.

The Isiokuo festival, a commemoration of the Ogun deity (these are war implements used for the destruction of the man-eating monster Osogan), would end with the Amufi guild performing special tree-top acrobatic rituals as a mark of the spiritual and mystical powers employed in the destruction of the monster Osogan. The acrobatic display was performed in Okpagha trees along the moat behind the present-day High Court in Benin City. The Okao is appointed by the Ọba to head the guild.

The Oregbeni are headed by the Ogbeni who collects the elephant tusks from the hunters and presents them to the Ọba. His home was a commercial hub at the Ikpọba hill opposite Oke-Edo. Today this site hosts one of the largest markets in Benin Kingdom (Aisien, 2015b, p.114 ).