Kings

Ogiso Igodo was the first Ogiso (king or ruler) of the Benin people. His mother was from Ugbekun village, while his father was from Udo village and hailed from an iron-maker (Ileme) family. He was born at Evbuoto (Idunmwun Ivbiotọ) village. Igodo’s leadership started when he became the Ọdiọnwere (gerontocratic head) of Evbuoto. Given the circumstances under which he imposed himself as the ruler of a larger polity beyond Evbuoto village, a novel political system began. As the Ọdiọnwere of Evbuoto, Igodo took his rightful place among the Iko-Edionwere (council of Ọdiọnwere) in Idu land.

From there, he emerged as the head of the council. Because of his leadership experience, contributions to society, judicial expertise, patronage and goodwill to the people, they described him as ‘Ọye vbe Ogie ne ọ rre Iso’, meaning ‘He is like the king in the sky’. This description of Igodo was later contracted to become the title ‘Ogiso’. After Igodo outmaneuvered his fellow Ediọnwere and brought all the communities under his political control, this territory was declared as ‘Igodomigodo’, resulting in the unification of the people of various communities into one polity. He built the first Ogiso palace, today known as Ogo n’Ẹrriẹ, in the Ugbekun quarter of Benin City (Osemwegie-Ero and Owie, 2016, pp. 4-5 ; Omoregie, 1997c, pp. 1-7 ).

Ogiso Ere was the second Ogiso in Igodomigodo land. He initiated a lot of reforms and consolidated the monarchy through the introduction of many innovations that allowed the monarchy to stand out as an institution. Ere relocated the royal seat from Ugbekun to Uhunmwun’idunmwun village and decorated the new palace wall with furrows, which is today known as ‘ekẹn ne a gbẹn’ in the Kingdom of Benin. He is credited with establishing the iron-makers guild, the woodworkers guild, Owina and Igbesamwan – ‘Igbesanmwa’, who made household utensils, among other products – Avbiogbẹ (as the royal guards to replace the abolished Odibo-Ogiso) and the Ughọrọn as the royal chroniclers.

Ogiso Ere also introduced the swords of authority: Ada, a scimitar, which is a single-edged sword, and Ẹbẹn, a double-edged thrusting sword. The Ẹkete (royal throne), the Agba (chief’s rectangular stool), the Ẹzuzu (a round leather fan), the Ẹkpoki (a round leather box), the Ẹguẹn (a beaded anklet) and the Odigba (a beaded collar). He was a lover of peace and forbade his subjects to quarrel subjects during his reign, hence the saying ‘A wua ne Ere’ (Aisien, 2015, pp.13-14 ; Omoregie, 1997c, p.14 ; Egharevba, 1968, p.1 ).

Ogiso Orire, the third Ogiso, was the last of the Igodo’s dynasty that ruled Benin. He was the eldest surviving male child of Ere. Since Ere had laid a good foundation in the kingdom it was easy for the people to identify with his son. Orire inherited a productive kingdom where trade and industry flourished. It is said that leather workers, blacksmiths and carvers practiced their craft with freedom and enthusiasm.

Ogiso Orire died around the year 100 CE without a son, which created a vacuum in leadership of the central administration and a resultant interregnum that lasted between 100 and 385. This was caused by the failure of the Ediọn n’Isẹn, or the kingmakers, and the various Enigie to agree on how to select or appoint a new king, and was motivated by the fact that the Engine, Edionwere and some nobles started seeking independence. In fact, some Enigie and Edionwere, especially those outside the city, started behaving like Ogiso in their territories. They stopped attending meetings in the city and violated the laws at will. Some even developed expansionist ambitions, annexing neighbouring villages. For instance, the Enogie of Aho sacked Idokpa and Eyaen (Enyaẹ) and annexed them to Aho village. Also, boundary disputes became rampant within the kingdom, especially in Iguabode, the Ẹvbo-Owe and Evbo-egbe areas of Orhionmwon, the Udẹni area of Isi and even in Udo, with some of them even started to dig moats to protect themselves.

Without a central administration, the situation in the kingdom came close to anarchy. This brought the Ediọn n’Isẹn to the realization that they were losing control, and so they tried to restore order to the kingdom. Consequently, in 385, the Ediọn n’Isẹn – made up of Oliha, Edohen, Ero, Ezọmọ and Ehọlọ n’Ire – summoned a meeting of all the Ediọnwere and people in the city and the Enigie in the villages. In the meeting, it was resolved that the oldest Ọdiọnwere in the city should assume the title of Ogiso, ruler of the kingdom. Immediately Odia, who happened to be the oldest Ọdiọnwere, was crowned Ogiso (Osemwegie-Ero,1999, pp.14-15[]; Osemwegie-Ero and Owie, 2016. The Benin Monarchy and Ogiemien Connection: The Historical Facts. Benin: Mindex Publisher, p.13).

Ogiso Ọdia was the first Ọdiọnwere-Ogiso to be chosen. He was the Ọdiọnwere of Ire quarter. He was an Orhe worshipper – that is, a worshipper of the Ikpoba River. He was also an oraculist who used water-gazing art to give insight into people’s fate and future. He was later considered a weak king, but there was peace in his time. He is credited with having started the building of Ogiso palace at Uhunmwun-Idunmwun. He only ruled for five years (Osemwegie-Ero, 1999, p.17 ; Osemwengie-Ero and Owie, 2016, p.13 ).

​​Ogiso Ighido hailed from Igun Ugbọha near the Errie quarters (Osemwegie-Ero, 1999, p.18 ). He was the fifth Ogiso to rule Igodomigodo (Omoregie, 1997c, p.14 ). He used to be a professional blacksmith who made household implements in his ward before he became Ọdiọnwere of Igun Ugbọha. He was reluctant to accept the position of Ogiso when he was appointed, because he claimed his iron (Ogun) deity disapproved of it, but the people prevailed upon him to made king of the people, saying it was God’s wish. He agreed, and ruled from the palace at Uhunmwun-Idunmwun. Ogiso Ighido is most remembered for always celebrating his Ogun festival at the palace. He ruled for about fourteen years (Osemwengie-Ero and Owie, 2016, p.13 ).

Ogiso Evbuobo ruled from 414 to 432 AD. He was chosen from the Ikpokpan quarters in Igodomigodo as the Odiọnwere Ogiso. Before he ascended the throne, he looked so sickly and pale that many people thought he would not last long. But as soon as he was crowned Ogiso, he became strong and ruled for about nineteen years, beyond people’s expectations (Osemwengie-Ero, 1999, p.19 ). Ogiso Evbuobo is remembered as a good farmer, a hunter and a music lover (Osemwengie-Ero and Owie, 2016, p.14 ). Under his reign, the palace building was expanded to accommodate his many children and followers.

Ogiso Ogbeide ruled between 432 to 447 AD. His ascension was not as smooth as the preceding Ogiso-Ọdiọnwere because of the struggle over seniority between him, the Ọdiọnwere of Ugbague and the Ọdiọnwere of Ukhegie. This succession struggle was difficult for the people to settle immediately as they were indeed very close in age. The Ọdiọnwere of Ukhegie, who seemed more intelligent and energetic, was favoured, but unfortunately he died during the process as a result of his old age. Ogbeide was then crowned the new Ogiso (Osemwengie-Ero, 1999, p.20, ). People feared Ogbeide because of the sudden death of the Ọdiọnwere of Ukhegie. Ogbeide was also a very rich king who employed people to trade for him. Though old, he was a proud king; hence the people gave him the nickname ‘Ogbeide the proud eagle’ (Osemwengie-Ero and Owie, p. 14 ). He died in 447 during the Ehọ festival day (Ugie Ehọ).

One of the greatest diviners, he became Ọdiọnwere Ogiso from Emẹhẹ quarters, in the present area of Owina Street in Benin City (Osemwengie-Ero and Owie, 2016, p.14 ). Many people in the city knew him because of his profession as a diviner and oraculist. Couched in stories, his divinations, when understood and adhered to, were said to hardly fail, and this made him well patronised in his Emẹhẹ quarters (Osemwengie-Ero, 1999, p.21, ). Even after his ascension as the Ogiso, he continued his divination but instead used his ‘Ewaisẹ’, or servants, to consult for people.

Ogiso Ẹkpigho, who ruled Benin from around 466 to 482 AD hailed from the Use quarters. The name Ẹkpigho, meaning ‘bag of money’, was derived from the fact that he was a money lender. He was generous with his money but was merciless with defaulters and even seized their properties or made them work as pawns (indentured servants, Iyọha) in order to repay the money they borrowed (Osemwengie-Ero, 1999, p.22 ). This use of debtors as Iyọha is believed to be the origin of the practice in Benin which was adopted by some of the Ediọn and Enigie. His business made his candidature for the Ogiso title unpopular, but the Ediọn n’Isẹn accepted him because he was the most senior Ọdiọnwere at the time, and it was his turn. Ogiso Ẹkpigho was considered a very prudent manager of resources though heartless and merciless in the business of money lending (Osemwengie-Ero and Owie, 2016, p.14 ).

Ogiso Akhuankhuan ruled Benin between 482 and 494 AD. He was chosen from the Iguisi quarters of Igodomigodo. Akhuankhuan was a cloth merchant who had travelled widely selling clothes (Osemwengie-Ero and Owie, 2016, p.14 ; Osemwengie-Ero, 1999, p.2 ). He was the only surviving son of sixteen children and was born with the assistance of a medicine man in Ugbo-Maghan in the area of Mahin Island. He was given the name Akhuankhuan, meaning ‘one who cannot be killed by any evil spirits’, and grew up to be very meticulous. When he became the Ọdiọnwere Ogiso, he continued to advise people to preserve their property, and he spent twelve years on the throne.

Ogiso Ẹfeisẹkẹ reigned between 494 and 508 AD. He hailed from the Urubi quarters and was raised by his mother. Omoregie (1997c ) has opined that he was from Uselu town, whereas both towns are within the same axis. The wealth and fame of his mother overshadowed his own name; hence, he was identified with the name of his mother at his coronation. This is why a lot of people thought he was a woman and that some women were crowned Ogiso, but since women were not installed as Odionwere, they could never qualify for the Ogisoship.

The name Efeseke means ‘someone who is wealthy’, and his family reared animals in different villages in his kingdom, from which they derived their wealth. Ẹfeisẹkẹ himself kept cows and goats on the present site of New Benin Cemetery in Benin City (Osemwengie-Ero and Owie, 2016, p.14 ).

His reign was blessed with an abundance of food and the economy was buoyant. He was called ‘Ne Ọ gbe ẹmila ne ikian re’ (He who killed a cow for the flies to eat), meaning that there was surplus meat (Osemwengie-Ero, 1999, p.24 ). He died at the age of 108 after fourteen years on the throne.

Three communities – Oka, Ikpokpan and Ego – vied for the Ogiso position at this point. The Ọdiọnwere in each of these villages claimed to be the same age. To solve the problem, the Ediọnisẹn disqualified the Ọdiọnwere of Ikpokpan, because the Ikpokpan quarters had previously produced an Ọdiọnwere Ogiso between 414 and 432 AD. The contest narrowed down to the Ọdiọnwere of the Oka and Ego communities, who were asked to state the season of the year of their birth to determine who was older. The Ọdiọnwere of Ego claimed that he was born between Igue and planting, while the Ọdiọnwere of Oka said that he was born during the rains. It was thus obvious that the Ọdiọnwere of Ego was older, and he was crowned the ninth Ọdiọnwere Ogiso (Osemwengie-Ero, 1999, p.25 ). His rule was uneventful, as he depended on the initiative of the Ediọnisẹn and the Council of Elders to act (Osemwengie-Ero and Owie, 2016, p.14 ).

Ogiso Orria, the tenth Ogiso Ọdiọnwere, was crowned around 522 AD. He was from Oregbeni (ore ọghe ọgbeni), the elephant hunters’ camp or village at Ikpoba Hill. Orria was one of the greatest elephant hunters in the history of Oregbeni and Igodomigodo (Osemwengie-Ero, 1999, p.26 ; Osemwengie-Ero and Owie, 2016, p.14 ). He rose to fame and earned Ogiso Orire’s favour for killing an elephant in Ohosu forest, his mother’s village area, where he resided for some time. He later relocated to his father’s home area in Uhunmwun-Idunmwun. Ogiso Orria ruled for fifteen years and died at a very old age. His reign registered no memorable event except that it saw an increased exodus of the guildsmen and a further dislocation of Ere’s artisan communities in the metropolis of Benin, because in the second year after his coronation he became seriously ill (Omoregie, 1997c, pp.113-114 ).

Ogiso Imarhan succeeded Orria as the eleventh Ogiso Ọdiọnwere in 537 AD. He grew up helping his mother make pots at Oka, his hometown, and is said to have been more skilled in pottery than the women in Oka (Osemwengie-Ero, 1999, p.27 ). He ruled for eleven years. Ogiso Imarhan is remembered for his beautiful decorations, pot making, terracotta and human and animal figurines (Osemwengie-Ero and Owie, 2016, p.14 ). He made figures of snakes, fish, birds and insects on ritual pots. Some of these pots were for Osun, god of herbs, and Olokun, god of the sea.

Ogiso Etebowe, the twelfth Ogiso Ọdiọnwere of Igodomigodo, who ruled from 548 to 567 AD, was a powerful wrestler from the Oroghotodin quarters, which is the present Ọba Market in Benin City (Osemwengie-Ero, 1999, p.28 ). Etebowe was feared as a very powerful man with a wonderful strong fist. Osemwengie-Ero and Owie (2016 ) have described him as a destroyer of leopards, a one bone man and iron breaker. He is said to have died at the age of 117.

Ogiso Ọdiọn was the thirteenth Ogiso Ọdiọnwere in Igodomigodo. He was chosen from the Ukhegie quarters. In his youth, he was a hunter and master storyteller whom people always invited over to tell them stories (Osemwengie-Ero, 1999, p.29 ). It is said that one of the stories could last for as many as three days, and that he used his stories to draw attention to the ills and virtues of his society. He was very informed intellectually. Jubilation greeted Ọdiọn’s crowning as Ogiso, because his Ukhegie quarters had lost their son, an Ogiso aspirant, in a heated contest around 432, before Ogiso Ogbeide’s ascension. Ọdiọn was very old when he was crowned, but still spent seventeen years on the throne before his death in 584 AD.

Ogiso Emose, hailing from the Erie quarters, was the fourteenth Ogiso Ọdiọnwere. Ogiso Emoseis among the first of the six Ogisos referred to as the Okuku kings. He introduced and wore a new pattern of the royal cowrie crown, changing it from the flat-cap style to the conical one (woven with cowries), and beautifully lined with attractive designs from top to bottom (to the base), which distinguished the king from the chiefs, especially the nobles who also wore the flat cap. They were also called Okuku Ogisos because Ogiso Emose promoted a new look for the women as well (Osemwengie-Ero, 1999, p.30 ). He directed women, starting with those in his harem, to pack their hair high on their head into the shape of Okuku and adorn it creatively with designs attractive to the eye.

Ogiso Emose was raised by his mother, and because of his love for her he adopted her name, Emose, during his coronation; as a result, people recently began to believe he was actually a woman. It is important to note that no woman ever ruled in Igodomigodo – women could not become Ọdiọnwere since they were never members of the age grade. Ogiso Emose ruled for sixteen years. He is remembered for having established an ancestral altar for his mother and decorating it more than that of his father. He always celebrated the annual festival in honour of his mother (Omoregie, 1997c, pp.115-116).

Ogiso Ọrhọrhọ was the fifteenth Ogiso Ọdiọnwere and was from the iron-smith quarter/village of Igodomigodo. Although he was not the oldest Ọdiọnwere in the city, he was the most active and intelligent, and so was chosen over the infirm and senile who would not be able to face the rigors of administration. Just like Emose, he grew up under the care of his mother and took up his mother’s name at his coronation (Omoregie, 1997c, pp.117-119 ).

Ogiso Erebọ was the sixteenth Ọdiọnwere Ogiso to be crowned in Igodomigodo. He came from the Okhorho quarter and ascended the throne around 618 AD. Erebọ started life as a fisherman and canoe maker, having grown up near the Ikpoba river. He is credited with the introduction of the Ukhu salutation (family greeting) in Igodomigodo as a lineage communication system among community members for establishing a traditional affiliate declaration through individual profession (Omoregie, 1997c, pp.120-125 ). Ukhu was used to identify and manage the affiliation of members of the same kinship group. Erebọ was also a worshipper of Olokun, the god of the sea (Osemwengie-Ero, 1999, p.32 ).

Ogiso Ogbọmọ was the seventeenth Ọdiọnwere Ogiso and was chosen from the Ugbowo quarters of Igodomigodo. His parents came from the Ozoguo clan in the area of Ugbogiobo. Ogiso Ogbọmọ established Laiso as the family greeting of every Ogiso (Omoregie, 1997c, p.122 ). Ogbọmọ was born at Ugbowo but spent most of his life at Ozoguo, where he took up the family’s herbal-medicine profession. Though he had a farm at Ugbowo, he was also an herbalist and an Osun priest. Since he was very versed in herbalism, his house was always filled with people, especially those who needed children and wanted to solve the problems associated with children.

After his coronation in 642 AD, he instituted a festival for his Osun (god of herbs) every year, and his home was always full, mostly with women and children who gave him gifts (Osemwegie-Ero,1999, p.33 ; Osemwegie-Ero and Owie, 2016, p.14 ).

Ogiso Agbonzẹkẹ was the eighteenth Ọdiọnwere Ogiso of Igodomigodo, and he was from Upper Uselu. Apart from being a farmer, he was also a philosopher, historian, composer and poet. He was well versed in Edo folklore, and he was a man of great thought. He abhorred lying, swearing, quarrelling and fighting, hence he was referred to as Ere II (Osemwegie-Ero, 1999, p.35). He ruled for eighteen years and died when he was around 120 years old. He was not able to assert his authority against the Edion n’Isen (Omoregie, 1997c, p. 125 ).

Ogiso Ediaẹ (Ogiso Ediae) was the nineteenth Ogiso Ọdiọnwere and hailed from the Igbesanmwan quarters. He was already an old man when he was crowned an Ogiso, and brought a wealth of experience to the administration. He promoted arts and crafts and beautified the palace with many kinds of carved and moulded sculptures. He was the last Ọdiọnwere Ogiso in Igodomigodo (Osemwegie-Ero, 1999, p.36 ; Osemwegie-Ero and Owie, 2016, p.15 ). During his reign, he sought to create a power balance between the Senior Nobles, Great Nobles and Ogiso for the sake of progress and stability in the land (Omoregie, 1997c, p.126 ).

Ogiso Ọriagba assumed the Ogiso position after the death of Ogiso Ediae in 685 AD and started a new dynasty. He was the son of a renowned native doctor at Oroghotodin in the area now called Idunmwun-Ebo near Ọba Market. Under his father he trained as an Ighede drummer, and became very popular. It was said that without Oriagba an Ọbo (diviner’s) dance would not be complete, because citizens shunned such performances when he was not present. In fact, people shunned these performances when he was not the one drumming for the dancer. It was believed that his drumming made the diviners transcend to the world of spirits. As an Ọdiọnwere in Igodomigodo he had large followership not only from his clan, but from all over the kingdom. He served for many years as leader of the youth, or the Ọkao Eroghae and Ọkao Ighele age groups. He was a great wrestler who was good in fencing and archery (Osemwegie-Ero, 1999, pp.37-38 ).

On his ascension as Ogiso, he carried out reforms that strengthened the powers of the Ogiso and reintroduced the principle of primogeniture. He made changes to the Edionwere Ogiso succession system because he felt that it brought no improvement to Igodomigodo. He achieved this by making the Edion n’Isen title hereditary, simultaneously extending the hereditary principle to his son to become Ogiso after him (Omoregie, 1997d, p.4 ).

Ogiso Ọdọligie was the son of Ọriagba and was the twenty-fourth Ogiso of Igodomigodo. He was a warrior king who had a long reign (around fifty-five years). At an early age, his father sent him to live with Ozua the Warrior, Ọka’ẹvbo and great medicine man of Ughọtọn, who trained him to be a warrior and strengthened him with medicine. On his crowning as Ogiso, he suppressed, with a cruel firmness, the revolts of the anti-royalists who had been opposing his father’s administration for re-instituting primogeniture rule. His war chiefs were Esagho, Ozua, Olou and Ikẹn. The greatest of them was Ikẹn, whose function was beating the agba drum during battle or to summon people to the palace for gatherings. Ikẹn grew to be one of the greatest war leaders during the reign of Ọdọligie. It is said that during battle Ikẹn always killed twice the number of people as Ọdọligie (Osemwegie-Ero, 1999, p.40 ).

Ọdọligie used Ikẹn and his well-trained army to expand the kingdom. Ọdọligie resumed the Udo war which had originated during the reign of Ogiso Igodo. With the help of Ikẹn, Ọdọligie entered Udo and sacked the town. This was the first time the Igodomigodo army entered Udo and sacked its kingdom (Omoregie, 1997d, p.4 ). Rivalry between Udo and Ẹvbuotọ (Benin City) persisted for a long time, leading to wars with Benin under Ọba Oguọla (1285) and Ọba Ẹsigie and Arhuanran (1504). Ọdọligie was able to conquer many more territories during his reign.

Ogiso Ọdọligie established the second market in the metropolis of Ubini nowa. The market flourished and became popular as Ekiokpagha, now the location of St. Matthew’s Anglican Church on Sokponba Road (Omoregie, 1997b, p.10 ).

The original name of Ogiso Uwa was Ogbẹbo (Ogbebo), but to show he was born into wealth, he took the name Uwa, meaning prosperity. He lacked the warlike qualities of his father. He reigned for fifty-four years as one of the richest Ogiso to have ruled in Igodomigodo. He was extremely ostentatious and spent lavishly to add to the grandeur of his court as well as the large body of attendants or stewards of the chamber known as Ibiẹrhugha. They ensured that his was a life of ease by rendering him sundry services, which included spying on the subjects and vassals. He appointed only those who were prepared to do his bidding as ministers (Uko).

Throughout his fifty-four years on the throne, Uwa and his courtiers lived in the utmost splendour and extravagance. Uwayemwen (meaning ‘I love wealth’) and Enorhuwa (‘he who is in wealth’) were his other names, and he was regarded as a shining sun on the throne. He was able to manage the affairs of the state effectively. Initially he maintained a standing army, but later discharged most of them to become farmers. He encouraged trade with people outside Igodomigodo, such as Idoima (Idoma) and Uhe (Ife) – not the present Ife, in Yoruba land, but the one near Lokoja area. Through this long-distance trade, metals such as tin were introduced into the ironsmith trade. Hence, both Omoregie and Osemwegie-Ero have suggested that Ogiso Uwa introduced (Oze) lead, tin, or a mixture of both, and brass (Eronmwon) to Igodomigodo (Osemwegie-Ero, 1999, p.78 ; Omoregie, 1997, p.64 ).

Ogiso Ehẹnẹdẹn, whose original name was Egiebo, envisaged a peaceful and enjoyable reign, and took the title Ehẹnnẹdẹn, meaning ‘settled situation’, at his coronation. Ehẹnnẹdẹn inherited a large and developed kingdom – all the Enigie, Edionwere and other vassals would send their taxes and tributes to Ogiso in Igodomigodo. Ehẹnnẹdẹn consolidated the large territory by posting messengers who behaved like ministers in all parts of the kingdom. With this method of administration, he was able to keep the Enigie under check and curtail the crisis. Recalcitrant Enigie were reprimanded while the Ọdiọnwere and four elders of these towns or villages were punished.

Ogiso Ehẹnnẹdẹn was a lover of arts and crafts and, like Ere the Great, he strongly encouraged their further development. More people were trained in arts and crafts, and he reorganised the production and distribution of the craft products within and outside the kingdom (Osemwegie-Ero, 1999, p.82 ). New sources of iron ore were obtained from the areas today called Etsako and Ineme Nekhua. This increased the production of farm implements, which boosted agricultural output. New crops like sugar cane, beans, pumpkin, melon, and new varieties of bananas and palms were also cultivated. Ehẹnnẹdẹn allowed the Ediọnwere to create miniature palaces and courts in their quarters. Omoregie (1997d ) has acknowledged his introduction of a new architectural design –corrugated, or fluted, walls – in the structure of the royal house. After a long, fifty-year rule, Ehẹnnẹdẹn died without an heir, and succession shifted to another family line of the ruling Ogiso.

Succeeding Ehẹnnẹdẹn, Ogiso Ohuede was the only grandson of Ogiso Ọriagba’s second son, Enowe. Ogiso Ohuede was the Oka’egbe (family head) of the descendants of Ọriagba. He had attained the age grade of Edion-Evbo but was not yet an Ọdiọnwere, nor had he attained the other qualifications needed before being an Ogiso, like the position of Edion-Evbo or a titled chief. But as the oldest male of the Ọriagba family, he was crowned Ogiso because the kingmakers wanted to continue the Ọriagba bloodline owing to the stability the kingdom had experienced under that dynasty. Ohuede inherited a well-developed and large kingdom but did not seem prepared for kingship. He could neither control the Enigie nor check their excesses. Omoregie (1997d, ) has described Ogiso Ohuede as ‘the Senior Noble who was not prepared for kingship’ (Omoregie, 1997b, p.73 ). His weakness also affected the economy, as he did nothing to boost external trade (Osemwegie-Ero, 1999, pp.84-85 ). The reign of Ohuede, like that of the Edionwere Ogiso, lacked achievements.

Oduwa was the eldest son of Ohuede and, upon his father’s death, succeeded him as Ogiso. His coronation was a victory for the Ediọn n’Isẹn (kingmakers). The Ediọnwere were struggling to restore the rotation of rulership among themselves, but the Ediọn n’Isẹn feared their own hereditary titles would be compromised if the Ediọnwere succeeded, and were determined to secure the titles through hereditary kingship (Omoregie, 1997d p.76 ). Thus they were committed to prolonging the Ohuede dynasty. Oduwa refused to solve the problem of the rebellious Ediọnwere and their subjects militarily in order to avoid a civil war that would destroy the wealth of the nation. Rather, he chose the friendly approach of using gifts and titles to entice them to accept his rule. He appointed Oka’ẹvbo (governors) and sent them to the territories of the Enigie who did not accept his authority. He encouraged traders to redirect their activities to the west (Yoruba land). More traders visited Igodomigodo (Benin City) because of his friendship and international diplomacy (Osemwegie-Ero, 1999, pp.87-91 ). Oduwa was a lover of peace who believed in diplomacy rather than war.

Ogiso Obioye, the son of Ogiso Oduwa, ascended the throne when he was around forty years old. He inherited a large kingdom that engaged in foreign trade. Owing to increased dependence on this trade, food production was neglected at home in order to make more money from long-distance trade (as opposed to bartering?). This led to inflation in the land; many people had a lot of money, but there was little food and other necessities to buy. This problem dated to the reign of Ogiso Oduwa but became more acute during the reign of his son, when the problem was further compounded by a great famine that escalated food prices (Omoregie, 19976d, pp. 89-90 ; Osemwegie-Ero, 1999, p. 93 ). These economic difficulties made it difficult for people to pay tributes and taxes as usual. Because there were no taxes and tributes for the chiefs and nobles to share, and the Edionwere were faced with famine in the towns and villages, they had no reason for visiting the palace.

During Obioye’s reign there was also a lack of rainfall, which caused the streams to dry up and fires to break out more often. According to Omoregie, OSB, Ogiso Obioye introduced a monetary system called ‘Igho Obioye’ (untouchable money), which excluded the use of cowries (money) to check rising inflation. This measure, however, turned out not to work (Omoregie, 1997d, p.6 ).

Ogiso Arigho was crowned during a seven-year famine, a period of crisis in the kingdom. He was a merchant and long-distance trader who had become extremely wealthy before he was crowned Ogiso. He brought his knowledge of economics to the administration of Igodomigodo. In his determination to curb the inflation that paralyzed the kingdom, he introduced a system of double payment by decree, which mandated that everyone pay double the price for an item. This measure, called ‘Igharigho’, positively addressed the prolonged problem of inflation, and the economic situation in the kingdom improved (Osemwegie-Ero, 1999, p.99 ). Half of the money paid went into the Ogiso treasury as tax. Anyone who refused to pay the sales tax or embezzled the collection was punished by paying twice the initial sales-tax amount. The aim was to reduce the amount of money in circulation. The Avbiogbe town criers were spread all over the kingdom to ensure that the king’s share of every sale was deposited correctly (Omoregie, 1997d, pp.97-98 ).

Ogiso Owodo was the thirty-first king of Igodomigodo. The collapse of the Ogiso dynasty is attributed to his inability to manage the chaos in the kingdom during the post-famine recovery period and his failure to control the crisis within his palace to save Igodomigodo (Omoregie, 1997d, p.7 ; Osemwegie-Ero and Owie, 2016, pp.16-22 ). The Ohuede dynasty also collapsed under his reign because he committed the crime of ‘K’iruk’uvua’ (the killing of a pregnant woman) after he had ordered the execution of his son Ekaladerhan (Egharevba, 1968, p.4 ). As a ruler, he failed to protect the people against the Osogan, a man-eating monster. Thus the people rejected him, banishing him from Benin City to Ihinmwinrin. Ogiso Owodo lived there until he died (Egharevba, Evian 1970, p.1 ).

As stated by Egharevba, Evian left his Ihogbe ancestral home for Utantan (east circular area of Benin City) after the death and burial of his father. There, he established himself as a successful, fearless, patriotic, skilled and good citizen. Evian was made an administrator of Igodomigodo in recognition of his bravery and victory over the monster Osogan. The people of Igodomigodo appointed Evian to run the country after they banished Ogiso Owodo (Egharevba, 1970, p.5 ). The famous ‘Evian n’urie ebe’ (preventer of danger) was a descendant of the Eholo n’Ire family of Ihogbe quarters. Egharevba stated that Evian was the second son of one of the members of Eholo n’Ire (Egharevba, 1970, p.7 ). Hitherto, his descendants, the Ogiamiem, Oliha Ogiamien and Ohen Evian, maintained the use of the family morning salutation, Laire. Evian is renowned for introducing the Amufi acrobatic play, which Ọba Ẹwuare I would later improve and reorganise into a guild, the Amufi. The acrobatic dance had been part of the court ceremonies and was last performed during the reign of Ọba Akẹnzua II (Egharevba, 1968, p.6 ).

The reign of Ọba Ọrọnmiyan marks the beginning of the Ọba dynasty. This was made possible through the frantic effort of the Ediọn n’Isẹn, led by the Oliha, to bring back Ekaladerhan, the son of Ogiso Owodo, from Uhe and restore the line of kingship of the Ogiso dynasty (Osadolor, 2018, p.18 ). Ọba Ọrọnmiyan was sent to the Kingdom of Benin by his father, Oduduwa, on the request of some Benin elders. He became the first Ọba of Benin, and the Usama palace was built for him in Isekherhe village, while the Ogiso palace in Uhunmwun-Idunmwun was abandoned (Agbontaen-Eghafona, 2018, p.68 ). Ọba Ọrọnmiyan married the daughter of the Ogiegor, Erinmwinde. She gave him a son, who was named Owomika (Ẹweka I). Confronted by the challenges of ruling the Benin people, Ọba Ọrọnmiyan summoned the elders to a meeting, where he informed them that only a child that was ‘born, trained, and educated in the arts and mysteries of the land could reign over the people’ (Ehgarevba, 1968, p. 7 ). Ọba Ọrọnmiyan returned to Uhe, his native land, leaving his son in the care of Ogiefa, Oloton and Ihama.

Ọba Ẹweka I was the son of Ọba Ọrọnmiyan and Princess Erinmwinde, the daughter of Ogie Egọ, and grew up at Use village. His father appointed Osanego, Ogiefa, Ihama and Ọlọtọn to care for him until he was old enough to rule. At birth he could not speak; when this was reported to his father, a set of charmed marbles was sent to him to play the game akhuẹ with an agent, Ehẹndiwo. In the excitement of winning the game, the boy exclaimed ‘Ọwọmika!’, which became corrupted as Ẹwẹka. He was brought to Usama and crowned king with the royal name of Ọba Ẹwẹka I. According to Agbontaen-Eghafona (2018, p.68 ), Ọba Ẹwẹka received the royal regalia and insignia of office from his father at Uhe. He created the Uzama n’Ihinron from the Ediọn n’enẹ by including Edọhẹn and Ọlọtọn. He also made their titles hereditary as a reward for their roles in restoring the monarchy through a new dynasty (Agbontaen-Eghafona, 2018, p.68 ).

Envious of the chief-advisor position which his grandfather, the Enogie of Egor (Ogiegor), had assumed in the reign, the elders advised him to instruct his grandfather to dress in full regalia and take part in the annual ceremony. He was told to ask his grandfather to ‘zegbele’, which means commit suicide, but assumed that it meant to put on ‘egbele’, a ceremonial regalia. Only after his grandfather died, did he realised that zegbele means ‘commit suicide’ in the Edo language. Hence, he lost his grandfather because of the deception and envy of the elders (Egharevba, 1968, p.10 ). He had many children, and appointed some as Enigie in places like Ebue and Afemai.

Ọba Uwakhuaihẹn was one of the oldest sons of Ọba Ẹwẹka I, and succeeded him. Though his reign was uneventful, the kingdom is believed to have led a peaceful, contented existence. The Uzama nobles wielded great power because the king was at Usama, which was surrounded by their domains (Agbontaen-Eghafona, 2018, p.68 ; Egharevba, 1968, p.11 ).

Like his brother Ọba Uwakhuahẹn, there were no significant achievements under Ọba Ehẹnmihẹn, except the absence of conflict. He was another one of the sons of Ọba Ẹwẹka I who ascended the throne at Usama, where the Uzama nobles exercised much power. Ọba Ehẹnmihẹn’s reign was short-lived (Egharevba, 1968, p. 11 ).

The only son of Ọba Ehẹnmihẹn, Efabo reigned as Ọba Ẹwẹdo. As a prince, he was placed under the care of the priest of Ugbo in Mahin country. He felt surrounded by the powers wielded by the Uzama, and consequently relocated the seat of government from Usama Palace at Isekherhe to the Ogbe quarters, where he built Ọba Palace after he was crowned. He was denied passage through Isekherhe until he paid a fee. Some of his experiences are now re-enacted annually (Egharevba, 1968, p.11-12 ; Agbontane-Eghafona, 2018, p.68 ).

He prohibited the Uzama nobles from carrying the Ada (royal sword) before them when entering the palace or walking through the streets, the Ọba himself does. They were compelled to stand in rows before him instead of sitting, in order to distinguish them from an Ọba. One of Ọba Ẹwẹdo’s major achievements was subduing the Ogiamien, from whom he retrieved the erhe (royal stool) of the Ogiso dynasty for his own use. In the conflict that ensued, the king fought zealously, killed Oliha Ogiamien and pursued the Ogiamien to Ekiokpagha, where the Ogiamien surrendered. Since that time, all Benin kings have fought a mock battle with the Ogiamien as a re-enactment or commemoration of their defeat (Egharevba, 1968, p.13 ). Ọba Ẹwẹdo had the support of the royalists from Ebuya, Oroghotodin, Ugboka, Aragua, Uzebu and Ukhegie, among other places. This group of royalists was led by Odigie, an Ileme from Ebuya. Ọba Ẹwẹdo rewarded Odigie by bestowing on him the title of Iyase (Omoregie, 2010, pp.42-50 ).

He appointed Ogiefa to be the custodian of his personal god of good luck. He built a prison, which was named after him. The Iyase title he created was made the commander of the army, the Uwanguẹ was kept in charge of the royal wardrobe, Isekhure (Isekhurhẹ) was made the recorder of the departed ancestors (erinmwinidu) and Osodin and Uso appointed the keepers of the harem.

Ọba Oguọla was the second son of Ọba Ẹwẹdo. He was crowned Ọba in place of his elder brother Obuobo, who failed to return from an expedition he led to Ibo land long before the demise of their father. Obuobo returned three years after Oguọla’s coronation and he was made the Enogie of Avbiama (Omoregie, 2010, pp.49-50 ). Ọba Oguọla got men to dig trenches (moats) around the city to keep enemies out, especially his greatest and most powerful enemy, Akpanigiakọn of Udo. He married his daughter to Akpanigiakọn to win his friendship and peace, but his daughter deserted the marriage and returned to Benin City. Ọba Oguọla later defeated Akpanigiakọn at the battle of Urhezẹn around the year 1285. A brass casting guild was created in Benin during the early reign of Ọba Oguọla for the preservation of records (Egharevba, 1968, p.13 ).

Ọba Ẹdoni was the eldest son of Ọba Oguọla. He was described as a lover of pleasure who lacked the ability to manage the affairs of the kingdom (Agbontaen-Eghafona, 2018, p. 72 ).

Ọba Udagbẹdo was the second son of Ọba Oguọla, and became Ọba after the death of his elder brother Ẹdoni. Unlike his brother, he was described as an active, industrious, kind-hearted and brave prince who encouraged farming during his reign. It is stated that the Gas people migrated from Esi in Benin to the region of present-day Accra in Ghana during his reign (Agbontaen-Eghafona, 2018, p. 73 ).

Ọba Ohẹn, the third son of Ọba Oguọla, succeeded Ọba Udagbẹdọ and was described as a handsome and intelligent man. After twenty-five years of reign, he suffered paralysis of the legs, which he concealed from his chiefs. As a result, he had his attendants carry him to the council chambers before the arrival of the chiefs, and he was also the last to leave. The people became concerned and wanted to know why the protocol had changed. In order to find out, Iyasẹ Emuze hid in the chambers, but when he was caught, Ọba Ohẹn ordered him to be secretly executed (Omoregie, 2010, pp.53-58 ). When the people discovered what had happened to Iyasẹ Emuze, they decided to avenge him through a ritual killing (Agbontaen-Eghafona, 2018, p.72 ). They dug a hole under the throne into which Ọba Ohẹn fell, and the people stoned him to death with ‘white chalk’.

In visual depictions, Ọba Ohẹn’s legs are always depicted as ending in mudfish. He also encouraged the guild of weavers (Owina N’ido) in Benin Kingdom. Ọba Ohẹn was said to have decreed that his four sons, Ẹgbẹka, Ọrọbiru, Ogun and Uwaifiokun, should each reign in succession (Agbontaen-Eghafona, 2018, p.72 ).

Ọba Ẹgbẹka was the eldest son of Ohẹn. Although there are no records of his works, it is said he had several civil wars with the Uzama. During his reign, the Urhobos migrated from Benin Kingdom to become founders of Abraka and other towns. When Ọba Ẹgbẹka died, the people did not mourn him (Agbontaen-Eghafona, 2018, p.72 ).

Ọba Ọrọbiru was the second son of Ohẹn. His reign was described as peaceful and prosperous. In 1420, during his reign, his younger brother Prince Ogun was sent into exile in 1420. Ọba Ọrọbiru was said to be loved and admired by his subjects (Agbontaen-Eghafona, 2018, p.73 ).

Ọba Uwaifiokun was Ohẹn’s youngest son. The throne became vacant for several months after the death of Ọrọbiru, because Ogun, the rightful heir, was in exile. Tradition has it that Uwaifiokun, who was in exile with Ogun, volunteered to visit Benin to spy on the kingdom and return to give Ogun the news, but he betrayed Ogun by accepting the throne from the chiefs, thereby usurping the throne. His ten-year reign was harrowing for him because of the presence of Emotan, who was springing for Ogun, and the destabilising activities of Ogun. Uwaifiokun was eliminated by Ogun when he returned to Benin after twenty years in exile (Agbontaen-Eghafona, 2018, p.73 ).

Prince Ogun was forced into exile because members of the Ediọn N’Isẹn (kingmakers) were uncomfortable with his strong and independent personality, which they thought would be difficult to control if he became the Ọba. He escaped to save his life because he was given a death sentence. After twenty years in exile he returned, killed Uwaifiokun, who had usurped the throne, and was crowned Ọba (Aisien, 2012, p.47 ). He took the name Ọba Ẹwuare (Oworuare), meaning ‘it is cool’ or ‘the trouble has ceased’. He was a warrior king who recorded several military conquests, including the capture of 201 towns and villages in Ekiti, Ikare and Edo North (Osadolor, 2018 ). This transformed the kingdom into the Benin empire.

Ọba Ẹwuare is believed to have organised the guilds of brass casters and builders/architects (Igbeken) as well as the wards and sections of the guilds (Agbontaen-Eghafona, 2018, p.75 ). The city was divided in two – the palace (Ogbe) and the town (Ore n’khua) – as well as into streets. The architect guild (Igbeken) is credited to Ẹwuare. Ọba Ẹwuare had men dig moats, which provided security for the palace and city. The royal art of Benin had begun to flourish in the fourteenth century and improved further under Ọba Ẹwuare. He restored royal ceremonies like Ugie Erha Ọba and Igue to strengthen the mystical powers of the Ọba.

The greatest political reforms in Benin Kingdom recorded by the Ọba dynasty were initiated by Ọba Ẹwuare. In addition to creating many new titles, he established the Eghaevbo ore, introduced the scarlet cloth (Ododo), and invented the eziken and Ema-edo, which are used during royal ceremonies (Agbontaen-Eghafona, 2018, p.75 ; Egharevba, 1968, p.18 ).

Ọba Ẹzoti was the eldest son of Ọba Ẹwuare. He was shot in the forehead with a poisonous arrow during his coronation. Fourteen days later, he died from the wound. The band of red beads (Udahae) worn by chiefs of Benin around their foreheads commemorates the cap Ẹzoti used to stop the bleeding (Egharevba, 1968, p.21 ). He was described as a great agriculturalist and courageous with a forgiving spirit—he was said to have pardoned the boy who shot him. Ẹzoti’s only son was killed by his brother, Okpame, who was later banished from Benin by the chiefs for what he did.

Ọba Olua was the second son of Ọba Ẹwuare. He initially refused the crown because he feared his banished uncle, Okpame. His sister, Princess Edeloyo, was asked to ascend the throne. She was conferred the title of Edaiken but could not complete the coronation because of the occurrence of her menstrual cycle, which negated the requirement for the various rituals. Subsequently, the Uzama and Eghaevbo made a law prohibiting women from becoming kings (Agbontaen-Eghafona, 2018, p.78 ; Egharevba, 1968, p.21 ). Eventually, Olua was crowned Ọba after much persuasion from the elders.

Ọba Olua sent one of his sons to Ehor to keep an eye on Okpame; his son eventually became the first Ogie of Ehor. However, Ọba Olua was more concerned about his son Iginua’s reputation among the elders, who were not comfortable with the fact that Iginua was overbearing, while his father was described as kind and generous. Fearing the elders might not accept this son, Ọba Olua decided to create another kingdom for him near the coast. Ọba Olua is known as the father of Iginua, who left Benin to settle at Ode-Itsekiri as the first Olu of Warri (Agbontaen-Eghafona, 2018, pp.78-80 ).

Tradition has it that Ọba Olua was so kind and generous that he would pay the debt of others. Egharevba (1968 ) stated that by ‘this injudicious way, he almost exhausted the royal treasury’. He added, ‘Ọba Olua was then nicknamed Olua N’Ọkpẹtu kpọrọzọ n’hae osa nọ ma re, meaning Olua the prodigal who pays the debt he does not owe’ (Egharevba, 1968, p.21 ).

A republican government was set up after the death of Olua, which lasted for about three years. Prince Okpame was invited back from exile to become Ọba because the people in authority could not manage the affairs of the kingdom. He took the name Ọba Ọzọlua and embarked on expanding the empire. Ọba Ọzọlua fought and won over a hundred wars, which earned him the appellation ‘Ọzọlua n’ibaromi’ (Ọzọlua the Conqueror). He is remembered for defeating Origbo, a powerful chief at Ejide in the Siluko district, and seizing his treasures, including the musical instruments for the Emaba royal dance. In some conquered territories, he installed his sons as rulers of the towns and villages. He died at Uzea, poisoned by his own soldiers for ungratefulness and selfishness. John Affonso, a Portuguese explorer, visited Benin in 1485–86 and brought the first gun and coconuts to the kingdom (Igbe, 2019, p.124 ; Agbontane-Eghafona, 2018 p.80 and Egharevba, 1968, pp.23-27 ).

Ọba Ọzọlua was succeeded by Prince Osawe, who was crowned with the title Ọba Ẹsigie (Ọseigie). Ọba Ẹsigie had problems with his brother Aruanran, a man of giant stature and the ruler of Udo. They fought many battles, including Okuo-Ukpoba (Battle of Blood), in which Oni-oni, the only son of Aruanran, was killed. To avoid capture, Aruanran drowned himself in the lake of Udo (Odighi n’Udo). Osemwughe, the Iyase of Udo, wanted to avenge his master and challenged Ọba Ẹsigie, but he was defeated and fled with his followers. They settled in a place where they were called Emwan ne Udo, which was corrupted to Ondo. Their leader, Osemwughe, became known as Osemawe, a title by which all rulers of Ondo have since been known, and they had to pay a yearly tribute to the Ọba (Eweka, 1992, p.91 ). Ọba Ẹsigie’s reign witnessed more interactions with the Portuguese, and this led to his acceptance of Christianity. Ọba Ẹsigie is said to have read and spoken Portuguese fluently. Churches were established in Benin City by the Portuguese missionaries at Aro Osa (Aruosa) N’Ogbelaka, Aro Osa (Aruosa) N’Erie and Aro Osa (Aruosa) N’Akpakpava, which was the cathedral. Ọba Ẹsigie devoted a lot of energy to encouraging the missionaries (Aisien, 2015, p.115 ; Egharevba (1968, p.27 ) stated that ‘the mission made progress and thousands of people were baptized’. During this period, John Affonso d’Aveiro visited Benin for the second time.

The Ohen-Olokun (Olokun priest) of Ughoton was sent to Portugal as Benin Kingdom’s first ambassador. Both kings exchanged presents – a copper stool (erhe) was sent from Portugal, while a crucifix was sent from Benin in 1540. Ọba Ẹsigie also received the Roman Catholic catechism book, which unfortunately was later burnt down during the 1816 civil war in Benin City (Egharevba, 1968, p.27 ).

Ọba Ẹsigie created and conferred the title of Iy’Ọba (queen mother) on his mother, Oloi Idia, who accompanied him to the Idah war in 1515–16. As the first woman to go to war, Queen Idia is one of the most revered women in Benin history. The Eguae-Iy’Ọba (palace of the queen mother) was built for her by the Ọba at Uselu.

Ọba Ẹsigie introduced the royal ceremonial dance Ekassa and the chief’s drum Emighan. Brass plaque making has been dated back to him as well.

When was still a prince, Orhogbua was a beneficiary of the Portuguese schools established in Benin under his father, Ọba Ẹsigie. He is said to have continued his education in Portugal and returned after the death of his father. He was asked to choose between becoming a Catholic priest or the Ọba. The popular saying at that time was, ‘Ai wo Ọba, wo ebo’, or you cannot be king and a priest to a deity (Agbontaen-Eghafona, 2018, p.84 ). He chose to become the Ọba.

He followed the warrior-king tradition but was more of a seafarer. His naval force occupied Lagos, calling the place Eko (camp), and conquered all the riverine territories in Ijebu and the Mahin territories, from which he extracted tributes. His reign witnessed extensive trade with Europeans in various commodities at the Ughọtọn river port. One of his most interesting innovations is the introduction of sea salt to Benin from his seafaring expeditions (Agbontaen-Eghafona, 2018, p.84 ).

Before ascending the throne, Ọba Ehẹngbuda (who reigned c. 1578–1606) was an accomplished diviner and magician, hence the appellation Ehengbuda n’Obo’. Unlike his father, Ọba Orhogbua, who was famed as a marine warrior, he fought mostly on land in the Yoruba-speaking areas. Ọba Ehẹngbuda’s reign recorded several successful campaigns in the Yoruba land, including one major treaty with Are-Onakankanfo, the military commander of Oyo Empire, demarcating the boundary of both empires at Otun-Ekiti in the eastern Yoruba territories (Agbontaen-Eghafona, 2018, p.84 ).

During the reign of Ọba Ehẹngbuda, Benin organised military campaigns in all directions – the north, the Niger River, the eastern Yoruba territories and the coast – under various military commanders. Ezomo Agban, one of Ọba Ehẹngbuda’s military commanders, led the campaign to the western Ibo land, while Iyase Ekpenede’s exploits were in the northeastern Yoruba areas. According to Osadolor, ‘These warfare had economic motives’, one of which was the need for tributes, levies and taxes from subjects for the maintenance of the royal family and the palace retinue of officials (Osadolor, 2018. p.102[2]). Ọba Ehẹngbuda created the title Esama as a reward for Amadin, a warrior in the Benin army, who completed the Otun treaty with the Oyo army. Other titles created by him are Erato and Ezele, with several titles in the ranks of Uko. 

Ọba Ehẹngbuda travelled along the Epe/Lekki waterways through the lagoon to visit his dukedom and military camp Eko (Lagos). On his way, a storm hit the lagoon, and the royal boat capsized, which led to his death. As a result of this accident, the Iyase took over the command of the Benin army (Aisien, 2012, p.4[151]; Omoregie, 2010, pp.118-123[201]; Egharevba, 1968, p.31[7]).

The Ifieto palace society was established during Ọba Ehẹngbuda’s reign. Membership of this society was drawn from the sons of the various palace chiefs and the age mates of Prince Odogbo. They were called Ifieto because of the special hairdo they wore during their procession with Prince Odogbo from Uselu to Benin (Ekhator-Obogie, 2018, p.285 ).

The only son of Ehẹngbuda, Ọba Ohuan (who reigned c. 1606–41) was called Odogbo as a prince. He was described as very handsome with feminine features and many thought that he was a woman. To dispel this rumour and show that he was a man, his father asked him to walk naked, alongside his servants, from Uselu to Benin City. He and his attendants did the procession with their hair cut and styled the same way. His servants were called Ifieto (hair curlers). On big ceremonial occasions, the Ifieto are seen dancing and singing in front of the royal procession (Ekhator-Obogie, 2018, p.285 ).

On ascending the throne, he relocated to Evborhan to fortify against rebellious chiefs, particularly Iyase Ogina. He defeated Ogina and banished him to Okogo (Omoregie, 2010, p. 125 ). Ohuan, like his father, Ehẹngbuda, was a great herbalist and notable for making charms. He was loved and honoured by his subjects, as he ruled with wisdom and justice. He died without an heir and the throne had to be rotated among different branches of the Oranmiyan/Eweka royal family for the next six reigns (Egharevba, 1968, p.33 ).

When Ọba Ohuan died without an heir, the primogeniture rule was suspended. This led to the struggle for power among various factional chiefs. Ọba Ahẹnzae, a grandson of Ọba Orhogbua, was crowned Ọba in 1641. He was a minor, only about sixteen years old, and his young age was exploited by the chiefs, who looted treasures of ivory, bronze and wood from the palace while he gambled away the royal beads (Egharevba, 1968, p.35 ).

It was during his reign that the Kingdom of Benin started to dwindle. The last decade of the seventeenth century witnessed a reversal of the territorial expansion and an economic regression, particularly in arts and craft production (Agbontaen-Eghafona, 2018, p.85 ).

Ọba Akẹnzae ascended the throne as an elderly man and had a short reign characterised by wisdom in the governance of the kingdom. During his reign, Denis de Carli, a delegate from the Catholic missionaries, came to inspect the work of the church in Benin City (Egharevba, 1968, p.36 ).

Ọba Akẹngbọi was also an elderly man when he was crowned. He was called Agbihiagha (dreadlocks) because his hair was matted in twisted locks. His reign lasted six peaceful years (Agbontaen-Eghafona, 2018, p.85 ).

Ọba Ahẹnkpaye was described as stingy and covetous. He usurped the rights and entitlements of his chiefs and refused to pay the lawful coronation fees. Ahẹnkpaye collected the application fees and commissions of the chiefs in the Iwebo Palace society, which a citizen pays who receives the honour of beads. When the chiefs got tired of his selfishness, they tricked him by telling him that an oracle prediction required him to go to the Igbaghon River and offer a sacrifice for the prosperity of the kingdom. On the fateful day of Ọba Ahẹnkpaye’s departure, they led him to Ihinmwinrin road near the Iya-Ewuare gate along Utantan. From there the Eghaevbo N’Ogbe accompanied him as far as Ikpe on the banks of the Orhionmwon River. After three days, the chiefs sent word to Ọba Ahẹnkpaye that they had rejected him owing to his excessive avarice (Egharevba, 1968, pp.36-37 ).

Ọba Akẹngbẹdo was chosen as a member of the royal family by the elders and the Ihogbe. Having learnt from the fate of Ahẹnkpaye, he was known for his generosity, and his reign was peaceful. Ọba Akẹngbẹdo encouraged Christian missionary activities by allowing the Vatican to send priests to Benin, and in the process more Benin people embraced the Christian faith. Father Francis de Romano and Filip da Fugar carried out missionary work in Benin until 1688, when they left the affairs of the church entirely to the Ohensa (Egharevba, 1968, p.37 ).

Ọba Ore-Oghene ascended the throne as an elderly man. Despite a letter from the Pope saying he kept the Christian faith and increased the practice among his subjects, many people returned to their indigenous religions. Ọba Ore-Oghene encouraged commerce and arts and crafts, particularly cloth weaving. Benin textiles became highly coveted in the international market during his reign. The Kingdom of Benin soon became the envy of Manchester manufacturers, who began copying them for the South American market. There was peace and prosperity in the kingdom. Nyendael visited Benin in 1699 and again in 1702, leaving an impressive description of the Benin Kingdom (Agbontaen-Eghafona, 2018, p.87 ; Egharevba, 1968, p.37 ).

Prince Idova ascended the throne with the title Ọba Ẹwuakpẹ around 1701. He was the son of Akennuzama, who could not ascend the throne owing to old age, and so designated his son to be crowned (Egharevba, 1968, p.38 ). The early period of Ọba Ẹwuakpẹ’s reign was characterised by a series of setbacks because of his high-handedness and disregard for human lives, which caused a revolt and the desertion of his palace. A diviner recommended the sacrifice of one human and placing discarded head pads (used by carriers to carry loads on their head), broken calabashes and oil around the vicinity of the palace. Oloi Iden, his only wife who did not desert him, volunteered herself to be sacrificed. After the rituals were performed, the Benin chiefs started honouring Ọba Ẹwuakpẹ and pledged their loyalty to him. Peace was restored to the kingdom, and Queen Iden was referred to as Iden N’okpokhuo (Idẹn, the great woman) (Agbontaen-Eghafona, 2018, p.87 ; Aisien, 2015, pp.65-89 ). Ọba Ẹwuakpẹ re-enacted the law of primogeniture.

The second son of Ọba Ẹwuakpẹ, Ozuere usurped the throne from his elder brother Akẹnzua with the help of some chiefs. This violated the law of primogeniture re-established by his father, and some powerful chiefs, except Iyase Ode, did not approve of it and confronted Ọzuere. A civil war ensued as a result. Ozuere was defeated and dethroned after one year on as Ọba. He exiled himself to Okeluhen (Okeluse) before going to Uhen, where he was killed by a thunderbolt (Egharevba, 1968, p.39 ).

Ọba Akẹnzua I ascended the throne after his younger brother Ozuere was dethroned. He got the appellation Akẹnzua N’Iso n’orho (Akẹnzua, the rainy sky) because he was believed to be the richest Ọba. His reign was a period of peace, tranquillity and prosperity. Benin was so prosperous that Akẹnzua I created a period for festivity and dancing. He even created titles for merriment, namely Ine Oyenmwen, Obasoyen and Arasokun (Egharevba, 1968, p.39 ). He was a promoter of commerce, particularly with Europeans, which enriched many of the citizens. There was an increase in trade with the Dutch, and metals and fabrics were imported (Agbontaen-Eghafona, 2018, p.87 ). The abundance of new goods encouraged the brass casters to increase production.

Ọba Eresonyẹn continued the policies of his father, Akẹnzua I. He promoted trade, which in turn developed the arts of the kingdom, particularly brass casting. The famous brass stool, fine leopard figures and brass cocks of Benin are dated to his reign. Ọba Eresonyẹn introduced the Owigho ‘house of money’, a mud house decorated with cowries on the walls. He modified the Ododua masquerade and increased the number of bronze masks that look like the Osa N’Uzala deity to seven. With the introduction of Ododua, the Ovia deity was prohibited from Benin City, despite being part of a state masquerade across the kingdom.

He is credited with the invention of the Akohen (ivory flute) in Benin and commissioned the production of a brass royal stool (Erhe), like the one gifted to Oba Esigie by the king of Portugal. Ọba Eresonyẹn left behind ‘a stable, prosperous and moderately expansionist kingdom’ (Agbontaen-Eghafona, 2018, p.87 ; Eweka, 1992, p.163 ; Egharevba, 1968, p.40 ).

Akẹngbuda was one of the longest-ruling Ọbas of Benin. As stated by Egharevba (1968, ), ‘He lived till old age after fifty-four years of his reign’. During his reign, French merchants opened a business and built a factory at Ughoton, and Captain Landolphe, a Frenchman, visited Benin City three times.

Ọba Akẹngbuda’s royal army waged a war against Ubulu-Uku over the Obi’s (ruler’s) murder of Adesuwa, the daughter of Chief Ezọmọ. Princess Adesuwa was a betrothed of Ọba Akẹngbuda, he asked Ezọmọ to leave the battle for him to avenge her murder. The Ọba sent troops under the command of Imaran and a separate battalion under Emopkaogbe, the Agboghidi of Ugo. Emopkaogbe’s battalion fought and captured the Obi of Ubulu-Uku, but his head was brought to the king by Imaran.

Emopkaogbe was dissatisfied, because the credit given to Imaran was actually his. Egharevba (1968, ) reported that further reactions and the unbecoming manner of Emokpaogbe compelled the monarch to dispatch warriors against the Agboghidi. A fierce battle was fought while his wife, Emokpolo the sorceress, was brought to Benin City and kept under the care of Chief Ologbosere (Aisien, 2015, p.12 ). Emokpolo is believed to be the originator of the eghughu agba combination of songs, ukuse (beaded gourd) and dance (Igbe, 2019, p.164 ).

Ọbanosa was the son of Akẹngbuda and his princely name was Osifo. He was respected for his wise judgement in the case of an old man about to be condemned to death following accusations by a young man who claimed to be his son. As Edaiken, he had come from Uselu to hear cases in Ọba Palace since his father was very old. When he asked the young man to take the trial by sasswood poisoning as proof that the accused old man was his father, the young man trembled and cried and confessed that the man was not his father. The chiefs exclaimed, ‘Ọba n’Osa ọna khin’ (This is a godly king), because no son would treat his father the way the young man treated the old man (Egharevba, 1968, p.42 ). At his coronation, he chose the exclamation as his official title.

There was a contemporary of Osifo called Osopakhara. He was the head of Eniwanren Ason, a secret fraternity. Its members were known as the elders of the night and were recruited with a secret oath which was binding unto death. Unknown to the prince, his parents were the patrons of this group. Prince Osifo disliked Osopakhara for his excessive show of luxury and pride, as he usually dressed in expensive attire with anklets and carved beads. The prince threatened to kill Osopakhara, and in reply Osopakhara said, ‘A hand that opens the door must follow it’ (Egharevba, 1951, p.6 ). But the prince’s father and mother advised him against killing the leader of the fraternity.

Ọba Ọbanosa ordered the execution of Osopakharha, which led to street battles during which many people lost their lives. The streets adjacent to Osopakhara’s Ugbague quarters were sacked, and for decades they remained deserted. Ọba Ọbanosa took ill immediately after Osopakharha’s death, and the oracle prescribed the killing of Iy’Ọba Ose to restore his health. She was stoned to death with Osorhue (white chalk) at her Uselu Palace in public view. Ọba Ọbanosa died not long after burying his mother (Agbontaen-Eghafona, 2018, p.89 ).

Ọba Ogbẹbo reigned for only eight months. He had usurped the throne with the assistance of his mother and some chiefs who defeated the army of his elder brother, the rightful heir Erediauwa, in a civil war. Erediauwa fled to Evbokhimwi in Esan land. Ogbẹbo sent coral beads in a leather box (ekpokin) to the Enigie of Esan land to court their support and entice them to catch and behead his brother. But these gifts were collected from the messenger, Ogie, by Prince Erediauwa, who shared it with the Esan Enigie to gain their support against Ogbẹbo (Aisien, 2014, pp.41-49 ; ; Egharevba, 1968, p.43 ).

Prince Erediauwa was crowned with the title Ọba Osẹmwẹndẹ after defeating the usurper Ọba Ogbẹbo (Aisien, 2014, pp.21-108 ). Shortly after his ascension, the Udezi (Deji) of Akure rebelled and murdered Osague, the Benin consul at Akure, out of jealousy, and seized his coral beads. Osẹmwẹndẹ promptly ordered the invasion of Akure by Ologbosere, Ezomo and Imaram in 1818, and Akure was subdued. Arakale was later captured and executed by the Benin warriors (Egharevba, 1968, p.44 ).

Ọba Osẹmwẹndẹ was also credited with reconquering many vassals of Benin Kingdom and making them renew their allegiance. His reign saw continued visits and trade with Europeans, especially the British. Reports by Lieutenant John King and Fawckner attest to the events and wars during his reign. Ọba Osẹmwẹndẹ also replanted a Uloko tree that fell on Emotan’s grave (Agbontaen-Eghafona, 2018, p.89 ; Egharevba, 1968, pp.44-46 ).

Prince Odin-Ova was crowned as Ọba Adọlọ. He gained the throne with the help of his sister, Princess Aghayubini, daughter of Ọba Osẹmwẹndẹ, who deployed her vast resources to become king herself but failed. Soon after his ascension to the throne, the Ibadan forces took Ekiti, and the Benin military commanders had to take refuge at Itaogbolu in Akure country. Ọba Adọlọ was reputed to be kind-hearted, generous, rich, industrious and respected by his subjects. To honour his grandfather, he commissioned carved altar tusks covered in relief sculptures depicting past Ọbas, palace priests, warriors and officials, foreigners and symbols of royalty and power. Ọba Adọlọ established the Ekiadolo (Adọlọ’s market) settlement (Egharevba, 1968, p.46 ). During Ọba Adọlọ’s reign, metal roofing sheets were first introduced into Benin Kingdom by Itsekiri traders (Aisien, 2006, p.4 ).

Prince Idugbowa ascended the throne as Ọba Ovonramwẹ N’Ogbaisi. Though his reign, from 1888 to 1897, may have ended abruptly with the British invasion of Benin, his fame spread all over the world like ‘the rising sun shines throughout the distant lands’.

He was born around 1857, son of Ọba Adọlọ and Iy’Ọba Iheya, a sister of Ero Izedomwen. Immediately after his coronation, Ọba Ovonramwẹ purged the city of dissident elements, particularly chiefs. He was prepared to govern the kingdom according to the tradition of his ancestors. Igbafe (2018 ) stated that his loss of the kingdom was not due to his own weakness. He was a major obstacle to the commercial interests of the Itsekiri and the British, who wanted roads for trade and to access the forest resources of Benin (Igbafe, 2018, p.297 ; Igbafe, 1979, pp.37-79 ). This provoked the British consul and led to the invasion of Benin Kingdom and the stern measures taken against Ọba Ovonramwẹ. After the 1897 invasion, Ọba Ovonramwẹ was exiled to Calabar with two of his wives, Queen Egbe and Queen Aighọbahi, where he died there in 1914 (Egharevba, 1968, pp.48-60 ).

Prince Aiguobasinmwin Ovonramwe was born to Ọba Ovonramwẹ and Iy’Ọba Eghaghe, who hailed from Uvbe village. After the exile of Ọba Ovonramwẹ, the prince and heir apparent to the Benin throne retired to his maternal aunt Ediagbonya’s house at Ekhor to earn a living as a farmer, until he was called back to Benin by the consul. He was appointed district head but resigned after a short while. He was a skilled brass smith and also proficient in ivory- and woodcarving. His accession to the throne was not without some challenges, as the British administrators in Benin favoured Chief Agho Ọbaseki. The opposition of some chiefs led by his granduncle Chief Ero and the introduction of indirect rule, which relied on pre-existing traditional authorities, helped him regain the throne of his father (Ekhator-Obogie and Imuetiyan, 2018, p.320 ). Prince Aiguobasinmwin Ovonramwẹ was crowned as Ọba Ẹwẹka II on 24 July 1914. He took the oath of allegiance to the British imperial king – it was the first time a Benin monarch had pledged allegiance to another king.

Ọba Ẹwẹka II was a courageous king, which earned him the appellations of Ovbiodu (strong hearted) and Eweka N’Ologbe (the rebuilder) (Ekhator-Obogie and Imuetiyan, 2018, p.318 ). He rebuilt the palace after its destruction by British forces in 1897. He adhered to the tradition of the palace having no less than 201 rooms, and later roofed it with corrugated iron sheets. He contributed to the modernization of Benin in various spheres.

Akẹnzua II (1933–1978) was the first Ọba prepared by the Europeans for the throne of Benin. He had a Western-style education in Benin City and Lagos as well as administrative tutelage in Abeokuta and Benin as a young prince (Edomwonyi, 1981 ). He was able to achieve balance between tradition and modernity despite strong opposition, particularly from the educated elite, who yearned for democracy and free-market capitalism that threatened the communal resources (Edo, 2001 ). He contributed extensively to the development and provision of modern social infrastructure and amenities as well as the preservation and promotion of the indigenous language and culture. He spearheaded the agitation for the creation of Midwest Region, and in his endeavor to unify the Edo people, he choose Benin City as the capital of the region (Edo, 2018 ; Edebiri, 2005, pp. xvii-xix ) It was Ọba Akẹnzua II who started the campaign for the restitution of Benin objects. In 1938, he received a beaded dress and crown of Ọba Ovonramwẹ from the British colonial government.

Ọba Erediauwa Uku akpolokpolo (1978–2016) was born in 1923. He is regarded as the most learned of all kings that ruled Benin, being the first to have a university education. He started his education at Government Primary School and Edo College in Benin City and completed his post-primary education at Government College Ibadan. He later attended Higher College Yaba and graduated with a degree in law from Cambridge University in England (Agbontaen-Eghafona, 2018, p.92 ).

Ọba Erediauwa served in the colonial and post-colonial civil service of Nigeria, where he retired as a permanent secretary. On 23 March 1979, he was crowned the thirty-ninth Ọba of Benin Kingdom. He reigned for a glorious thirty-seven years. During this period, the Benin Kingdom witnessed tremendous peace, as Ọba Erediauwa described his position as a ‘servant leader’ (Erediauwa, 2013, pp.xix-xxx ; Igbe, 2019, pp.218-227 ).

Prince Eheneden was crowned Ọba Ẹwuare II on 20 October 2016, the fortieth king of Benin Kingdom in the Ọba dynasty. He was born in 1953 to Prince Solomon Akenzua and Princess Justina Ikuoyemwen Akenzua. He was schooled in Nigeria, the United Kingdom and the United States. He has worked in several international organisations and served as the Nigerian Ambassador to Italy, Rome and Albania (Agbontaen-Eghafona, 2018, p.95 ).