The Benin people use beads as one of their most important ceremonial body ornaments. There are coral and stone beads, which came mostly from long distance trade. The bead workers of Benin kingdom are called Enisen and they specialise in the art of bead making, particularly the royal regalia. Different types of beads are also worn for various ceremonies. The greatest honour anyone can get in Benin kingdom and from the Oba is to be decorated with a bead, the Ikele - a symbol of nobility.

Ikharo are linear keloid markings depicted on the forehead of Uhunmwu-Elao (commemorative heads) in groups of three or four above each eye. The exact meaning of Ikharo is debated; some have argued that they relate to the gender or tribal identification of the person on whom they are depicted. For example, has argued that they were worn only by men; however, their use in depictions is not consistent with this, and the Iy’Ọba are also shown wearing them. argued that they are instead a stylistic feature employed by artists that varied over time.

The naming of these markings differs between publications. For example, describe these markings as “agbaguda n'ehae”, which they write translates literally as “blades of the forehead”. However, later went on to call these “ikharo”, as used here. referred to these forehead markings as ikharo, meaning “tribal mark [of eye]”.

Ẹbẹn are a type of ceremonial sword of significant importance in the Benin Kingdom. During ceremonies, titled chiefs would hold them or toss them during dances, thereby paying homage to the Ọba at these public events, particularly when a chief receives a certain status. It is forbidden for Ẹbẹn to touch the ground, so the chief must take extra precautions to avoid dropping the Ẹbẹn during the dance. Therefore, the Okae-Odionmwan (head of executioners) dances with the Umozo (warfare or executioner’s sword) behind the dancing chief.

There are two central ceremonial swords used in the royal court of the Benin Kingdom, one of which is the Ẹbẹn, along with the Ada (ceremonial swords). They are distinguished by their blades: the Ẹbẹn blade reflects the shape of a leaf or an oar. Sometimes, it is decorated with openwork designs and/or brass inlays, most commonly shaped as small Ẹbẹn and Ẹkpẹn (leopards). The handle of the Ẹbẹn also has an unusual ring-shaped form, which further differentiates it from the Ada.

The Ọba is the monarch of the Edo people and Kingdom. The current reigning monarch, Ọba Ẹwuare II, is the fortieth Ọba of the current dynasty, which is traditionally understood to have begun around 1170 AD ( ). Over the centuries, the role and conception of the monarch have shifted, and the Emwin Arre (royal treasures) and the visual language they carry provide important evidence for understanding these developments. Although Emwin Arhe served a variety of functions within court life and ritual, “their primary purpose was to glorify the godlike king and the history of the powerful empire” (Plankensteiner 2007, p. 25). Representations of the Ọba are therefore ubiquitous across Benin court arts and frequently occupy a central position within their visual language.

Representations of the Ọba can be recognised through a combination of characteristics, including his size, as he is usually depicted larger than other figures, and his position within compositions, where he may appear in front of or be supported by other figures, as in the Royal Triad motif. The Ọba is also distinguished by particular items of regalia, including the Oro projection from his crown, the distinctive beaded swag extending from his right hip, the Ewu ivie (coral-beaded shirt), and Ukpan obọ eva (crossed coral-beaded baldrics).

Since the early 20th century, scholars have sought to identify individual Ọbas represented on Emwin Arhe by analysing the regalia and other attributes of figures identified as monarchs, as well as the combinations of motifs and figures appearing on particular objects. Oral traditions and historical accounts, alongside European archival sources, have also played an important role in determining the identities of specific Ọbas (e.g., , ; ). Just as the institution of the monarchy developed and changed over time, so too did the ways in which Ọbas were represented by artists working within the royal guilds, including the Igun-Ẹrọnmwọn and Igbesamwan.

Ukpọn is the Edo term for cloth (Aigbe 1985, p. 55; Ọbazee 2025, p. 542) and is used here to refer to the wrappers or kilts worn by many of the figures depicted on the Emwin Arre (royal treasures). The cloth worn around the waist may be plain, but it is more commonly richly decorated with motifs associated with the monarchy, power, and wealth, such as the Ọba'nui (infinity symbol) and Uhunme Ikpotoki (Portuguese heads).

The Benin Kingdom was renowned for its textile production, both for local use and for trade ( ). Within the royal court, members of the Owina n’Ido produced ukhuen cloth for the Ọba and other members of the court, who wore it as wrappers during festivals and ceremonies ( ).

Alongside locally produced textiles, imported cloth was also an important commodity in the Benin Kingdom’s trade networks. Textiles were exchanged with neighbouring production centres, particularly Ijebu ( ), while European traders brought silks, woollens, linens, and cotton from Europe and Asia from the 15th century onwards ( ).

The Ẹkpẹn (leopard) is an animal that appears most often among the motifs decorating the Emwin Arhe (royal treasures). The Ẹkpẹn symbolises the valour and strength of the Ọba, as well as his political authority. The Benin people eulogise the Ọba as the ‘ẹkpẹn n'owa’ (leopard of the home).

When a hunter kills a leopard, he must say “ẹkpẹn n'oha” (I killed a bush leopard), as it is taboo to say that a hunter killed a leopard without specifying that it is a bush leopard, as otherwise this would “be tantamount to symbolically killing the king” (Nevadomsky 1988, p. 81). For this reason, leopards of the bush are called Atalakpa to distinguish them from those that represent the Ọba.

The trunk hand motif, comprising an elephant’s trunk ending in a fist, is believed to have complex and varied symbolic meanings. During the 15th and 16th centuries, the era of the warrior kings, the motif appeared only occasionally. During the 18th century, it was revived to honour the richest of all Ọbas, Ọba Akenzua I. This was particularly the case on the Aken'ni Elao (carved tusks), and the trunk hand motif commonly appears on these ivories from the 18th century and throughout the 19th and into the 20th centuries ( ). In her PhD thesis, Barbara Blackmun ( ) identified eight different kinds of motifs of this type on the Aken’ni Elao alone, indicating that the form itself is variable. In addition to the ivory Aken’ni Elao, the motif also commonly appears on the flanges of Uhunmwu-Elao (commemorative heads), the bases of Urhotọ (altar tableaux), and some ornately decorated bronze Ukhurhẹ (ancestral staffs).

The elephant trunk hand has been interpreted as a symbol of physical power ( ) and strength ( ), and as the “ultimate Hand of Hands” ( ). A past Ihama n’Igun-Ẹrọnmwọn ( ) interpreted the motif as a symbol of “taking life”. On some Emwin Arhe (royal treasures) where the trunk hand motif is present, depictions of human sacrifices are also present, representing the ultimate power held by the divine Ọbas. The potent nature of the trunk hand motif is further emphasised by Barbara Blackmun through the combination of “the head of one of the most powerful animals with a hand that grasps with enormous strength”; together, these signify “the acquisition of great wealth for the kingdom” ( ).

The Ukpan obọ eva (coral-bead crossed baldrics) were worn as part of the ehaingbehia, the full ceremonial regalia, by only high-ranking members of the palace, including the Ọba himself, the Iy’Ọba, the Edaiken, and the Ezọmọ (Ben-Amos 1999, pp. 68, 141; Osadolor in Plankensteiner 2007, cat. no. 70, pp. 322–323).

Odigba (coral-beaded collar) is a rigid neck collar made of coral beads, worn as part of ceremonial attire only by senior princes who have been made Enigie (Inneh 2007, p. 107). Although Ibafe (2007, p. 43) argued that the Odigba was introduced during the Ogiso period (c. 900–c. 1170 AD) by Ogiso Ere, along with other symbolically important Emwin Arhe, such as the Ada (ceremonial sword) and the Ẹbẹn (ceremonial sword), this seems unlikely, as coral was only introduced in the late 15th century through trade with Portuguese merchants.

The Ititi ako is a cluster of coral beads, usually three or four, attached to a pin and used to embellish the royal crowns on Uhunmwu-Elao (commemorative heads) and Uhunmwu-Ẹkuẹ (pendant masks). These bead clusters are also known as star beads, which indicate the prosperous destiny of an individual or wearer. Apart from enhancing the appearance of the wearer, they also represent the individual’s high social status. Judging from their presence on a variety of head sculptures, both men and women wore Ititi ako.

The Uki (moon) is said to be associated with coolness, peace, and joy and to be more important than even Owẹn (the sun) ( ; ). The behaviour and nature of the moon were and are studied by the Iwoki, the guild of astrologists and meteorologists established by Ọba Esigie (c. 1504–50).

The Uki is usually depicted in crescent or half-moon form and appears on some of the Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (bronze relief plaques), sometimes on its own as a corner motif and at other times as part of compositions with figures identified as being part of the Iwoki. Crescent forms of the moon are also used as part of the motifs decorating textiles and clothing worn by figures.

These motifs are known as Uhunmwu Ikpotoki in Edo, which translates as ‘Portuguese head’ in English. Portraits of Portuguese men, featuring only their heads and sometimes their shoulders, were used by artists as motifs on the Emwin Arhe (royal treasures), in particular on the Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (bronze relief plaques) and Aken'ni Elao (carved altar tusks). Also included here are a series of two or three conjoined spirals, which are interpreted as abstract forms of this motif.

One of the earliest suggestions that many of the European figures depicted on objects were Portuguese was made two years after the 1897 British Colonial Military Campaign on Benin City by the British Museum curators Charles Hercules Read and Ormonde Maddock Dalton (1899, p. 19), based on testimony from seven chiefs in the aftermath of the military campaign. The long, straight hair, beards, and domed hats together led to the identification of these representations as Europeans (von Luschan 1919, pp. 54–57; Ezra 1992, p. 246).

When included within the visual imagery of the Emwin Arhe, the Portuguese are associated with the new Atlantic trade and the consequent wealth that emerged following first contact with the Portuguese in the late 15th century. For this reason, Portuguese heads are also often associated with the sea deity Olokun. Eisenhofer (2007, p. 59) argued that the Portuguese figures and heads as motifs on the royal treasures are symbols of the king’s power: “these depictions of foreigners helped to build and strengthen the king’s image.”

When incorporated into the design of the Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (bronze relief plaques), Curnow (1997, p. 48) instead argued that these motifs could in fact indicate events that took place during Ọba Esigie’s reign. Ọba Esigie is associated with the Portuguese, as they became increasingly important during his reign, assisting with battles against the Igala from Idah, bringing Catholicism to Benin, and introducing weaponry such as guns and cannons, which were instrumental in the expansion of the kingdom.

Figures wearing a headdress with a single protrusion from the crown of the head, known as the Oro, are found only among the Ọba and a select category of palace dignitaries whose ancestors originated in ancient Ile Ife ( ; Ọbazee 2025, p. 407). Only the Osa and Osuan, custodians of the Uwen and Ora deities, as well as members of the Emuru, who are responsible for the care of Iru vessels, may wear a headdress with the Oro. The identification of different figures is therefore interpreted based on the combination of the Oro with other items of regalia. Artists in the Igun-Ẹrọnmwọn and Igbesamwan depicted figures with the Oro on Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (bronze relief plaques) and Aken'ni Elao (carved tusks), respectively. The Oro would either be made of coral beads as part of the crown or headdress, or be woven from itoto fibre ( ).

The Udahae is a forehead band made from coral beads and worn by chiefs. Sometimes a white Igan (feather) from the Oɛɣohɔ (vulturine fish eagle) is tucked into the left side of the Udahae. According to Benin oral tradition, the Udahae was introduced by Ọba Ezoti, the first son of Ọba Ewuare I. During his coronation, Ezoti was shot in the forehead with a poisoned arrow. To stop the bleeding, a band of red beads was wrapped around his forehead while he made public appearances. Fourteen days later, he died from his wound. Since then, Benin chiefs have worn the red-beaded Udahae around their foreheads to commemorate the cap used by Ezoti to stop the bleeding (Egharevba 1968, p. 21).

Igan (feathers) are commonly depicted tucked into the headdresses and hats of chiefs represented on Emwin Arre (royal treasures). These feathers are from the Oɛɣohɔ (vulturine fish eagle) and symbolise respected old age and proper chieftaincy ( ).

The Ubanu'hi (infinity symbol) is a kind of guilloche or interlaced strapwork motif that can be angular or rounded. It was used by Edo artists in the decoration of many Emwin Arhe (royal treasures) and is ubiquitous in Benin royal arts. Ubanu'hi is a shortened form of “uba no Ọba ya de agbon ke ehimwin yi”, which means “the rope with which the Ọba ties the heaven and earth together” (pers. comm. Chief John Igbineweka Inneh n’Igbesawman, 2022). Similarly, Paula Ben-Amos Girshick (in Plankensteiner 2007, pp. 339, 341) described this as “Ọba n’iri agbon”, or the “rope of the world” pattern.

According to Ọbabanmu Ineh (in Blackmun 1984, p. 51), the use of this motif indicates that objects were carved by members of the Igbesanmwan. However, the motif is found on all types of Emwin Arhe (royal treasures), not only those made of ivory or wood. On the flanges of the Ama (relief plaques) alone, Kathryn Gunsch (2018, pp. 75–77) identified three different versions of the Ubanu'hi and, through her analysis of over 850 plaques, found that these different Ubanu'hi forms align with other characteristics, such as dimensions, the prevalence of ornamental motifs, and stylistic qualities. Together, these provide evidence, she argues, of different production groups among the plaque makers .

Kate Ezra (1992, pp. 209, 264) went on to argue that the use of these motifs indicates that certain objects were used in a “royal context” and were associated with “royal patronage”.

Uman-ague is a badge in the form of an equal-armed cross. The cross with straight-sided arms is known as the “Greek cross,” while the type with V-shaped arms, narrowing toward the centre, is known as the “Maltese cross.”

Uman-ague is usually worn around the neck by members of the Ewua or by the Ohensa ( ). The equal-armed cross has various meanings: as a symbol of cosmic order, it represents the number four and references the “four cardinal points established by the High God Osanobua when he created the world” (Girshick Ben-Amos 1999, p. 64), as well as the “crossroads or junction that serves as the point of connection between the natural and spiritual worlds” ( ). Paula Girshick Ben-Amos ( ) also argues that when used on the Aken'ni Elao (altar tusk), the cross, together with the Ivie okpagbaru (royal bead), constitutes an “emblematic reference” to Ọba Ẹsigie.

The cross also references the Portuguese missionaries who brought Christianity to the Kingdom during the reign of Ọba Ẹsigie, although the symbol was already in use before the arrival of Europeans ( ). The Maltese cross is thought to have been introduced by Ọba Eresonyẹn as part of his efforts to encourage the worship of the High God Osanobua during his reign ( ; ). Regardless, Uman-ague is often associated with Ọba Ẹsigie.

Ọba gha ye Ivie gie ọwan, ẹ ghi tama rẹn ehe nọ gha bae yi (When the Ọba gifts you a bead, he doesn’t tell you how to wear it) (Daniel Inneh, pers. comm., 27 September 2025).

Iviawẹ (also spelled ĺvîowẹ) are coral-beaded anklets, often worn stacked together (Aigbe 1985, p. 28; Okpokunu, Agbontaen-Eghafona & Ojo 2005, p. 162; Ọbazee 2025, p. 279). Many of the figures depicted on the Emwin Arhe (royal treasures) in brass, bronze, ivory, and wood are shown wearing these. According to Daniel Inneh (pers. comm., 27 September 2025), beads were sent to people whom the Ọba wished to honour, although there was no directive on how to wear them.

Mostly, people who wear Iviawẹ are identified as palace chiefs or priests and priestesses. However, today anyone can wear them as cultural identifiers or fashion pieces.