The Ubanu'hi (infinity symbol) is a kind of guilloche or interlaced strapwork motif that can be angular or rounded. It was used by Edo artists in the decoration of many Emwin Arhe (royal treasures) and is ubiquitous in Benin royal arts. Ubanu'hi is a shortened form of “uba no Ọba ya de agbon ke ehimwin yi”, which means “the rope with which the Ọba ties the heaven and earth together” (pers. comm. Chief John Igbineweka Inneh n’Igbesawman, 2022). Similarly, Paula Ben-Amos Girshick (in Plankensteiner 2007, pp. 339, 341) described this as “Ọba n’iri agbon”, or the “rope of the world” pattern.

According to Ọbabanmu Ineh (in Blackmun 1984, p. 51), the use of this motif indicates that objects were carved by members of the Igbesanmwan. However, the motif is found on all types of Emwin Arhe (royal treasures), not only those made of ivory or wood. On the flanges of the Ama (relief plaques) alone, Kathryn Gunsch (2018, pp. 75–77) identified three different versions of the Ubanu'hi and, through her analysis of over 850 plaques, found that these different Ubanu'hi forms align with other characteristics, such as dimensions, the prevalence of ornamental motifs, and stylistic qualities. Together, these provide evidence, she argues, of different production groups among the plaque makers .

Kate Ezra (1992, pp. 209, 264) went on to argue that the use of these motifs indicates that certain objects were used in a “royal context” and were associated with “royal patronage”.

Representations of figures, often the Ọba, with an Ukhurhẹ (Ancestral Staff) in their right hand recur in a number of Emwin Arre (royal treasures), particularly those carved in wood as Agba (royal stools), cast in brass as part of Osogan (Osun staffs) and Ikẹgobọ (altars to the hand), and carved in ivory as Aken'ni Elao (carved tusks).

Ukhurhẹ are rattle staffs, usually made from wood, although brass examples are believed to have been owned by the Ọba. Ukhurhẹ were, and continue to be, commissioned when the paternal head of a family passes away as a way of commemorating them ( ). Following a ceremony in which they are installed on the family’s ancestral altar, Ukhurhẹ are typically lined up against the back of the altar and are used to communicate with ancestors and the spirit world. When depicted on the Emwin Arhe, Ukhurhẹ are usually held in the right hand of the Ọba, while an Ughavan (celts) is carried in his left hand.

Ukpan obọ ọkpa is a single baldric worn diagonally across the torso, from the left shoulder to the right hip. Barbara Blackmun described these baldrics as an “Ẹkpẹn band,” worn by figures as “a sign of distinction” ( ).

Ekhara (umbrellas) play a multifaceted role in Benin art, reflecting both their function as status symbols and their association with European visitors. On some Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (bronze relief plaques), sunshades resembling Asa are held by the Ọba’s attendants to protect him from the sun. European-style Ekhara, as we know them today, are also depicted in late 19th-century wooden carvings produced by the Emada. In her analysis of the Aken'ni Elao, Barbara Blackmun ( ) observed that on earlier objects, umbrellas were generally depicted only in the hands of foreign figures rather than those identified as members of the Benin Kingdom.

On later objects, particularly those dating to the late 19th century, this changes. The Ọba and high-ranking chiefs such as the Ezọmọ are depicted being shielded from the sun by attendants carrying Ekhara, a practice also described by Europeans visiting Benin City (e.g., ). Like many imported luxury goods, the Ekhara was incorporated into the visual language of royal power and became an important status symbol, associated with the wealth, authority, and elevated position of those permitted to use it.

The Ukpan obọ eva (coral-bead crossed baldrics) were worn as part of the ehaingbehia, the full ceremonial regalia, by only high-ranking members of the palace, including the Ọba himself, the Iy’Ọba, the Edaiken, and the Ezọmọ (Ben-Amos 1999, pp. 68, 141; Osadolor in Plankensteiner 2007, cat. no. 70, pp. 322–323).

In addition to the Uhanbọ, the Ekpede was also used by warriors in Benin and is likewise said to have been created by Ake, the deity of archery. Because the Ekpede could fire heavier arrows, it was an important weapon in warfare before the introduction of firearms by Portuguese traders. However, this interpretation has been disputed, with some scholars arguing that the crossbow was instead copied by the Edo from Portuguese examples. Furthermore, in depictions on the Emwin Arre (royal treasures), Edo warriors and hunters are shown using the Uhanbọ, while only Portuguese soldiers are depicted with the Ekpede .

The Ewu ivie (coral bead shirt) is made of strings of coral beads. This heavy shirt was part of the ceremonial regalia worn only by a small number of high-ranking members of the palace: the Ọba, the Edaiken, the Iy’Ọba, and the Ezọmọ (Girshick Ben-Amos 1999, p. 68). The Ewu ivie would be worn along with the Odigba (coral bead collar).

Ọba gha ye Ivie gie ọwan, ẹ ghi tama rẹn ehe nọ gha bae yi (When the Ọba gifts you a bead, he doesn’t tell you how to wear it) (Daniel Inneh, pers. comm., 27 September 2025).

Iviawẹ (also spelled ĺvîowẹ) are coral-beaded anklets, often worn stacked together (Aigbe 1985, p. 28; Okpokunu, Agbontaen-Eghafona & Ojo 2005, p. 162; Ọbazee 2025, p. 279). Many of the figures depicted on the Emwin Arhe (royal treasures) in brass, bronze, ivory, and wood are shown wearing these. According to Daniel Inneh (pers. comm., 27 September 2025), beads were sent to people whom the Ọba wished to honour, although there was no directive on how to wear them.

Mostly, people who wear Iviawẹ are identified as palace chiefs or priests and priestesses. However, today anyone can wear them as cultural identifiers or fashion pieces.

Ẹyẹn (snakes) are among the most common animals depicted by Edo artists on the Emwin Arhe (royal treasures). The varied depictions of these reptiles suggest different snake species, including the Ikpin (python), Arhunmoto (puff adder), and Olose (red-black striped snake); therefore, here we use the generic term for snake: Ẹyẹn.

The identification of snake motifs and depictions as Ikpin, as well as the importance accorded to this species, is a subject of scholarly debate. Paula Ben-Amos (1976, p. 247) argued that the Edo admired the “stature, colouration and crushing power” of the python, which was in turn associated with Olokun. She went on to identify the brass figures of snakes that formerly adorned the roof of the palace, as well as several other snakes, as pythons. Joseph Nevadomsky (1988, p. 77) argued instead that the importance of the Ikpin had been overstated.

Some of these snake representations may in fact be the Arhunmwoto (puff adder). The first to suggest this was the German curator Felix von Luschan (1919) in his early research into the Benin royal treasures. Nevadomsky (1988, pp. 79–80) suggested that the large head, narrow neck, and rough scales are indicative of either the puff adder, a symbol of “material wealth, tribute, and gifts,” or the Gaboon viper.

Another kind of snake that may be depicted is the Olose (red-black striped snake). It has the praise name “king of the snakes” in Edo. Olose is also closely connected to the deity Olokun, both because of its attractiveness and because it inhabits wet environments such as forest streams, which in turn flow into rivers and the sea, where Olokun lives (Nevadomsky 1988, pp. 76–77). Although the exact meanings of these different snakes vary, they share the characteristic of being spiritually powerful creatures.

Agbada is a type of short sword with a double-edged blade, used by warriors in hand-to-hand combat ( ; ; Ọbazee 2025, p. 10). Warrior figures carrying Agbada are often depicted on the Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (bronze relief plaques), both in scenes of combat and in ceremonial contexts.

The Ada is a symbol of authority usually borne in the presence of the Ọba by a designated holder, the Omada, which translates as ‘Ada bearer’. The Ọba has almost exclusive rights to the use of the Ada, except when he permits titled chiefs, such as the Oliha, to possess one. During the Ogiso period, predating the current Ọba dynasty, the Ada is said to have been a symbol of ancestral power, with the ability to control the future (Ben-Amos 1995, p. 25). The Ada is ranked higher than the Ẹbẹn, another symbolically important ceremonial sword.

Odigba (coral-beaded collar) is a rigid neck collar made of coral beads, worn as part of ceremonial attire only by senior princes who have been made Enigie (Inneh 2007, p. 107). Although Ibafe (2007, p. 43) argued that the Odigba was introduced during the Ogiso period (c. 900–c. 1170 AD) by Ogiso Ere, along with other symbolically important Emwin Arhe, such as the Ada (ceremonial sword) and the Ẹbẹn (ceremonial sword), this seems unlikely, as coral was only introduced in the late 15th century through trade with Portuguese merchants.