The Ukpan obọ eva (coral-bead crossed baldrics) were worn as part of the ehaingbehia, the full ceremonial regalia, by only high-ranking members of the palace, including the Ọba himself, the Iy’Ọba, the Edaiken, and the Ezọmọ (Ben-Amos 1999, pp. 68, 141; Osadolor in Plankensteiner 2007, cat. no. 70, pp. 322–323).

Odigba (coral-beaded collar) is a rigid neck collar made of coral beads, worn as part of ceremonial attire only by senior princes who have been made Enigie (Inneh 2007, p. 107). Although Ibafe (2007, p. 43) argued that the Odigba was introduced during the Ogiso period (c. 900–c. 1170 AD) by Ogiso Ere, along with other symbolically important Emwin Arhe, such as the Ada (ceremonial sword) and the Ẹbẹn (ceremonial sword), this seems unlikely, as coral was only introduced in the late 15th century through trade with Portuguese merchants.

Uhunmwu-Ẹkuẹ (pendant masks) formed part of the ceremonial regalia worn by court dignitaries to indicate their rank or function and are frequently represented among the Emwin Arhe (royal treasures), particularly those made of brass, bronze, or ivory.

Different animals were depicted on Uhunmwu-Ẹkuẹ, particularly the heads of leopards and crocodiles. The most common type features the face or head of an Ọba. Other examples take the form of an elephant head incorporating the trunk-hand motif, a ram’s head, or, in a very small number of cases, the face of a Portuguese man. Different figures appear to have worn Uhunmwu-Ẹkuẹ with different imagery. For example, warrior chiefs are often depicted wearing leopard-head pendant masks, whereas crocodile-head Uhunmwu-Ẹkuẹ are generally shown being worn only by the Ọba and his Enọbare (Blackmun 2007, cat. no. 137, p. 365).

Ọba gha ye Ivie gie ọwan, ẹ ghi tama rẹn ehe nọ gha bae yi (When the Ọba gifts you a bead, he doesn’t tell you how to wear it) (Daniel Inneh, pers. comm., 27 September 2025).

Iviawẹ (also spelled ĺvîowẹ) are coral-beaded anklets, often worn stacked together (Aigbe 1985, p. 28; Okpokunu, Agbontaen-Eghafona & Ojo 2005, p. 162; Ọbazee 2025, p. 279). Many of the figures depicted on the Emwin Arhe (royal treasures) in brass, bronze, ivory, and wood are shown wearing these. According to Daniel Inneh (pers. comm., 27 September 2025), beads were sent to people whom the Ọba wished to honour, although there was no directive on how to wear them.

Mostly, people who wear Iviawẹ are identified as palace chiefs or priests and priestesses. However, today anyone can wear them as cultural identifiers or fashion pieces.

In addition to the Uhanbọ, the Ekpede was also used by warriors in Benin and is likewise said to have been created by Ake, the deity of archery. Because the Ekpede could fire heavier arrows, it was an important weapon in warfare before the introduction of firearms by Portuguese traders. However, this interpretation has been disputed, with some scholars arguing that the crossbow was instead copied by the Edo from Portuguese examples. Furthermore, in depictions on the Emwin Arre (royal treasures), Edo warriors and hunters are shown using the Uhanbọ, while only Portuguese soldiers are depicted with the Ekpede .

In the riverine area surrounding Benin City, there are two types of crocodile. The Ẹghughu, known in English as the dwarf or bush crocodile, is believed to be more docile ( ; Ọbazee 2025, p. 133). The second type is the Àgbákà, the aggressive Nile crocodile ( ; Ọbazee 2025, p. 11).

Crocodiles are one of the important animals represented in the historical Emwin Arhe, and they are known as Olokun’s guards or the “policemen” of the waters. The powerful and ferocious qualities of these animals might explain why warrior figures are often depicted wearing Uhunmwu-Ẹkuẹ (pendant masks) in the shape of crocodile heads on Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (bronze relief plaques) ( ). Olokun devotees use crocodiles as sacrificial animals in offerings during the worship of Olokun.

The Ẹkpẹn (leopard) is an animal that appears most often among the motifs decorating the Emwin Arhe (royal treasures). The Ẹkpẹn symbolises the valour and strength of the Ọba, as well as his political authority. The Benin people eulogise the Ọba as the ‘ẹkpẹn n'owa’ (leopard of the home).

When a hunter kills a leopard, he must say “ẹkpẹn n'oha” (I killed a bush leopard), as it is taboo to say that a hunter killed a leopard without specifying that it is a bush leopard, as otherwise this would “be tantamount to symbolically killing the king” (Nevadomsky 1988, p. 81). For this reason, leopards of the bush are called Atalakpa to distinguish them from those that represent the Ọba.

This motif of an Ọba with legs represented as two mudfish is often interpreted as Ọba Ohẹn, who reigned c. 1334–1370. According to oral traditions, Ohẹn suffered from paralysis of the legs and unsuccessfully attempted to conceal his condition from the chiefs and members of the royal court. The Iyasẹ Emuze eventually hid in the Ọba’s chambers to discover his secret ( ). When Ohẹn discovered this, he ordered the Iyasẹ to be executed. However, the people learned of the order and turned against the Ọba. According to the tradition, they plotted to kill him ritually by digging a hole beneath his throne and stoning him with Orhue (white kaolin chalk) when he fell into it ( ; ).

Not all representations of an Ọba with mudfish legs, however, are understood to refer to Ohẹn. Variations in the objects and animals carried by the figure are thought to indicate different meanings ( ; ). Members of the Igbesamwan and Igun-Ẹrọnmwọn have emphasised the significance of these accompanying motifs (Blackmun 1984, pp.249–255). When the mudfish-legged Ọba is shown holding aquatic creatures such as crocodiles, for example, the image has been interpreted as a “cosmological image” representing the correspondence between the two monarchs: the Ọba of Benin, ruler of the land, and Olokun, ruler of the waters ( ). By contrast, representations in which the Ọba holds swords or staffs have been interpreted specifically as depictions of Ọba Ohẹn.

Depictions of Ewi (mudfish) are among the most frequent motifs in the Emwin Arhe (royal treasures). Mudfish hold an important place in Edo belief, both as representations of the god Olokun and as symbols of royalty (Plankensteiner 2007, p. 410), as well as of “prosperity, peace, well-being and fertility” (Ben-Amos 1976, p. 245). Mudfish are also particularly common animals for sacrifice, and mudfish-shaped Orhiẹvbẹ (kola-nut boxes) were used to make offerings or store kola nuts.

Yet, the appearance of Ewi across the Emwin Arhe is not consistent, and it has been argued that different species of mudfish were depicted by Edo artists, each with different qualities and capabilities. For example, the electric shock of Malapterurus electricus resembles the fierceness of the Ọba, while the liminal qualities of the Synodontis clarias mudfish, which lives both on land and in water, similarly reflect the Ọba’s rule over land and sea (Gallagher 1983, p. 93). With these different qualities in mind, the mudfish is an important symbol of Benin kingship and royalty.

Sometimes the Ọba was depicted by artists with mudfish rather than legs (see Ọba with Mudfish Legs).

Representations of figures, often the Ọba, with an Ukhurhẹ (Ancestral Staff) in their right hand recur in a number of Emwin Arre (royal treasures), particularly those carved in wood as Agba (royal stools), cast in brass as part of Osogan (Osun staffs) and Ikẹgobọ (altars to the hand), and carved in ivory as Aken'ni Elao (carved tusks).

Ukhurhẹ are rattle staffs, usually made from wood, although brass examples are believed to have been owned by the Ọba. Ukhurhẹ were, and continue to be, commissioned when the paternal head of a family passes away as a way of commemorating them ( ). Following a ceremony in which they are installed on the family’s ancestral altar, Ukhurhẹ are typically lined up against the back of the altar and are used to communicate with ancestors and the spirit world. When depicted on the Emwin Arhe, Ukhurhẹ are usually held in the right hand of the Ọba, while an Ughavan (celts) is carried in his left hand.

Osisi is the general Edo word for guns. Osisi were initially introduced to the Benin Kingdom by the Portuguese from the late 16th century onwards and were again traded by the Dutch from the early 17th century (Osadolor 2007, p. 80). Osisi are usually represented as being carried by, or positioned close to, figures identified as Portuguese based on their attire and hairstyles. There are a small number of exceptions, including two wooden carved examples. One is a possible chair seat where a figure is holding a gun upright, and another is a carved wooden panel where a gun is shown next to an Edo dignitary. Additionally, a more recent work produced by the artist H. I. Erhabor includes an Edo figure holding a gun.

These weapons quickly became a potent symbol in the work of artists from the royal guilds, representing the Ọba’s military might, expansionist policies, and the wealth derived from foreign trade (Plankensteiner 2007, p. 208). Three different kinds of European-manufactured guns were used by the Edo army: the flintlock, the wheellock, and later the matchlock, which was used from the 1600s until around 1850. However, Ọba Akengbuda became increasingly wary of Edo dependence on European firearms and encouraged the production of firearms by the Igun Ematon. During the 19th century, the trade in firearms from Europe resumed, with Dane guns, so named because they were made in Denmark. However, from 1890, European imperial powers banned the trade in firearms to West Africa (Osadolor 2007, pp. 80–81).

The Ewu ivie (coral bead shirt) is made of strings of coral beads. This heavy shirt was part of the ceremonial regalia worn only by a small number of high-ranking members of the palace: the Ọba, the Edaiken, the Iy’Ọba, and the Ezọmọ (Girshick Ben-Amos 1999, p. 68). The Ewu ivie would be worn along with the Odigba (coral bead collar).

These motifs are sometimes interpreted as Uzo (antelopes) but also as Emila (cows). Both animals share certain characteristics, being regarded as physically beautiful and peaceful creatures. Some Orhiẹvbẹ (kola-nut bowls) take the form of an antelope head with its horns grasped by a pair of hands, a gesture that symbolises the right of humans to sacrifice antelopes and cows with impunity (Ben-Amos Girschick 2007, cat. no. 88, pp. 339, 341).

Uzo primarily symbolise beauty, docility, and their status as permissible sacrificial animals, reinforcing themes of human control over nature and the rituals that underpin social and spiritual order.

Asoro (spears) were used as weapons in battle and for hunting ( ; Ọbazee 2025, p. 37). According to , there were two types: long and short. Figures holding Asoro are often depicted on Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (bronze relief plaques), sometimes in battle scenes and at ceremonies and festivals.

Ikpotoki figures (Portuguese figures) are easily distinguished by their European-style clothing, including hats and helmets, as well as by their facial features, particularly their thin, straight noses and straight hair. The objects Ikpotoki figures are shown wearing or holding provide further indications of their relationship with the Benin Kingdom. When they hold or are positioned alongside Ugianran (manillas), for example, they indicate trade, commerce, and wealth, while weaponry such as firearms, swords, or spears indicates their role as mercenaries in the service of the Ọba. In 1515, Ọba Ẹsigie went to war against the Attah of Idah, the ruler of a neighbouring kingdom. Portuguese mercenaries and weapons assisted the Edo in winning the battle, enabling the further expansion of the Kingdom. Ẹsigie’s reign was particularly important for strengthening ties between the Benin Kingdom and the Portuguese Empire, and he is believed to have spoken fluent Portuguese. With Ẹsigie’s encouragement, Portuguese missionaries established churches in the Benin Kingdom ( ; ), while Portuguese trading factories were also established ( ). Ọba Ẹsigie allowed his son to be baptised and sent him to Portugal to be educated; following his return, he became Ọba Orhogbua ( ).

The Ubanu'hi (infinity symbol) is a kind of guilloche or interlaced strapwork motif that can be angular or rounded. It was used by Edo artists in the decoration of many Emwin Arhe (royal treasures) and is ubiquitous in Benin royal arts. Ubanu'hi is a shortened form of “uba no Ọba ya de agbon ke ehimwin yi”, which means “the rope with which the Ọba ties the heaven and earth together” (pers. comm. Chief John Igbineweka Inneh n’Igbesawman, 2022). Similarly, Paula Ben-Amos Girshick (in Plankensteiner 2007, pp. 339, 341) described this as “Ọba n’iri agbon”, or the “rope of the world” pattern.

According to Ọbabanmu Ineh (in Blackmun 1984, p. 51), the use of this motif indicates that objects were carved by members of the Igbesanmwan. However, the motif is found on all types of Emwin Arhe (royal treasures), not only those made of ivory or wood. On the flanges of the Ama (relief plaques) alone, Kathryn Gunsch (2018, pp. 75–77) identified three different versions of the Ubanu'hi and, through her analysis of over 850 plaques, found that these different Ubanu'hi forms align with other characteristics, such as dimensions, the prevalence of ornamental motifs, and stylistic qualities. Together, these provide evidence, she argues, of different production groups among the plaque makers .

Kate Ezra (1992, pp. 209, 264) went on to argue that the use of these motifs indicates that certain objects were used in a “royal context” and were associated with “royal patronage”.