Figures wearing a headdress with a single protrusion from the crown of the head, known as the Oro, are found only among the Ọba and a select category of palace dignitaries whose ancestors originated in ancient Ile Ife ( ; Ọbazee 2025, p. 407). Only the Osa and Osuan, custodians of the Uwen and Ora deities, as well as members of the Emuru, who are responsible for the care of Iru vessels, may wear a headdress with the Oro. The identification of different figures is therefore interpreted based on the combination of the Oro with other items of regalia. Artists in the Igun-Ẹrọnmwọn and Igbesamwan depicted figures with the Oro on Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (bronze relief plaques) and Aken'ni Elao (carved tusks), respectively. The Oro would either be made of coral beads as part of the crown or headdress, or be woven from itoto fibre ( ).

Many different kinds of Ẹrhu (headwear) are worn by the various figures depicted in the imagery of Benin royal artefacts. Through comparisons with ceremonial regalia still worn by chiefs and members of the royal court, including the Ọba himself, some Ẹrhu have been used to identify the different figures depicted. For example, the conical hat worn by high-ranking town chiefs as part of the pangolin regalia, still worn at ceremonies, is also visible on figures on some Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (bronze relief plaques) ( ). Other examples include the distinctive bell-shaped helmet associated with the Iyasẹ ( ). Figures who wear a shallow-brimmed hat and a cross have been identified as Ewua or Ohensa priests ( ).

Different kinds of helmets and headwear were worn by warriors, reflecting the many different ranks and roles in the army at any given time, as well as developing trends that were in turn represented on Emwin Arhe created at different points in time. Warrior figures wearing helmets covered in cowrie shells were carved on the Aken'ni Elao (carved tusks) (Blackmun 1984, p. 330), yet on the brass Ama, warriors are sometimes depicted wearing helmets made from crocodile hide or horsehair with a front plate (Osadolor in Plankensteiner 2007, cat. no. 238, p. 457). Helmets made from horsehair with a front plate are one of the more common types represented on the Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn, and the demand for black horse tails was noted by both Portuguese and British traders during the late 17th and 18th centuries (Osadolor in Plankensteiner 2007, cat. no. 238, p. 457). Other warriors depicted on Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn wear helmets with a rounded top, chinstrap, and sometimes also a feather tucked into the left side. These types of headwear are known as Ẹrhu Iyokuo.

Attire worn for battle also differed from that worn for ceremonial occasions, such as the pointed headwear worn in combination with an ornate leopard-head tunic by war chiefs. Depictions of figures wearing this attire on brass Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (bronze relief plaques) have been interpreted as representing the war chiefs’ participation in the war-ritual Isiokuo festival (Osadolor in Plankensteiner 2007, cat. no. 238, p. 457).

Another distinctive form of headwear is that worn by figures identified as leopard hunters on the brass Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (relief plaques). These large helmets cover almost all of the leopard hunters’ faces except for their noses, eyes, and upper lips, and are made of an unusual material that remains unidentifiable (Plankensteiner 2007, cat. nos. 68–69, p. 322).

European figures are also portrayed with distinctive hats, such as Portuguese three-cornered hats. These depictions reflect the artists’ keen observation and highlight the impact of European trade and military assistance (Ezra 1992).

The Umọmọ is an L-shaped hammer made of iron that holds profound importance, symbolising power, transformation, and spiritual efficacy. The hammer is fundamentally associated with Ogun, the god of iron, embodying “the force inherent in metal, [with] a mystical power with the potential to create or destroy” ( ). This dual aspect of the hammer—its capacity for both shaping and destruction—mirrors the formidable power of the Ọba. The L-shaped hammer is often associated specifically with Ọba Eresonyẹn, as it most commonly appears within the visual language of Emwin Arhe (royal treasures) that he commissioned, for example, held by Ewua figures and on one ornate cast Ẹrhẹ, thought to have been Ọba Eresonyẹn’s throne (id. no. 209779) ( ).

The hammer is notably held by figures identified as Ewua palace officials or Ohensa priests, who also wear a cross pendant on their chests. The consistent portrayal of these figures holding the Umọmọ underscores its connection to the origins of the Benin dynasty and the spiritual authority of the Ọba. Ọba Esigie, the powerful 16th-century “warrior king”, is credited with encouraging ironworking, further solidifying the hammer’s link to royal martial strength and divine kingship.

Appearing on Aken'ni Elao (carved ivory tusks), Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (bronze relief plaques), and even as a charm, the hammer symbolises the Ọba’s ability to “mold and transform” events, to overcome challenges, and to provide spiritual protection ( ). Its presence thus reinforces the complex interplay of hierarchy, spiritual authority, and military might within the Benin Kingdom, consistent with other potent symbols such as the Akọn Ẹkpẹn (leopard’s tooth neck ornament). The Umọmọ often appears on Emwin Arhe (royal treasures) believed to have been commissioned during the reign of Ọba Eresonyẹn ( ; ).

Other terms for hammer in Edo are Avan or Avalaka ( ), which are used interchangeably with Umọmọ by members of the Igun-Ẹrọnmwọn.

Uhunmwu-Ẹkuẹ (pendant masks) formed part of the ceremonial regalia worn by court dignitaries to indicate their rank or function and are frequently represented among the Emwin Arhe (royal treasures), particularly those made of brass, bronze, or ivory.

Different animals were depicted on Uhunmwu-Ẹkuẹ, particularly the heads of leopards and crocodiles. The most common type features the face or head of an Ọba. Other examples take the form of an elephant head incorporating the trunk-hand motif, a ram’s head, or, in a very small number of cases, the face of a Portuguese man. Different figures appear to have worn Uhunmwu-Ẹkuẹ with different imagery. For example, warrior chiefs are often depicted wearing leopard-head pendant masks, whereas crocodile-head Uhunmwu-Ẹkuẹ are generally shown being worn only by the Ọba and his Enọbare (Blackmun 2007, cat. no. 137, p. 365).

Ebe Amẹ refers to a wide variety of plants, particularly the leaves of the water fern or river leaf, found in riverine areas of southern Nigeria ( ). Artists from the Igun-Ẹrọnmwọn used these as a decorative motif in the background of most Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (bronze relief plaques). The petals of the Ebe Amẹ, like the points of the ἀghàdàgháda (crossroads), represent the four cardinal directions: north, east, south, and west. The number four plays a foundational role in the Edo calendar, which is structured around four market days ( ).

Odigba (coral-beaded collar) is a rigid neck collar made of coral beads, worn as part of ceremonial attire only by senior princes who have been made Enigie (Inneh 2007, p. 107). Although Ibafe (2007, p. 43) argued that the Odigba was introduced during the Ogiso period (c. 900–c. 1170 AD) by Ogiso Ere, along with other symbolically important Emwin Arhe, such as the Ada (ceremonial sword) and the Ẹbẹn (ceremonial sword), this seems unlikely, as coral was only introduced in the late 15th century through trade with Portuguese merchants.

In the riverine area surrounding Benin City, there are two types of crocodile. The Ẹghughu, known in English as the dwarf or bush crocodile, is believed to be more docile ( ; Ọbazee 2025, p. 133). The second type is the Àgbákà, the aggressive Nile crocodile ( ; Ọbazee 2025, p. 11).

Crocodiles are one of the important animals represented in the historical Emwin Arhe, and they are known as Olokun’s guards or the “policemen” of the waters. The powerful and ferocious qualities of these animals might explain why warrior figures are often depicted wearing Uhunmwu-Ẹkuẹ (pendant masks) in the shape of crocodile heads on Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (bronze relief plaques) ( ). Olokun devotees use crocodiles as sacrificial animals in offerings during the worship of Olokun.

Enobare is the term used for the supporting figures who are typically depicted alongside the Ọba, holding his arms or hands as part of the Royal Triad motif. Their identities are interpreted variously: they may represent the Osa and Osuan, who support the Ọba during certain ceremonial contexts, or, particularly in representations dating to the 18th century, the Edaiken (crown prince) and Ezọmọ ( ).

The Ọba is the monarch of the Edo people and Kingdom. The current reigning monarch, Ọba Ẹwuare II, is the fortieth Ọba of the current dynasty, which is traditionally understood to have begun around 1170 AD ( ). Over the centuries, the role and conception of the monarch have shifted, and the Emwin Arre (royal treasures) and the visual language they carry provide important evidence for understanding these developments. Although Emwin Arhe served a variety of functions within court life and ritual, “their primary purpose was to glorify the godlike king and the history of the powerful empire” (Plankensteiner 2007, p. 25). Representations of the Ọba are therefore ubiquitous across Benin court arts and frequently occupy a central position within their visual language.

Representations of the Ọba can be recognised through a combination of characteristics, including his size, as he is usually depicted larger than other figures, and his position within compositions, where he may appear in front of or be supported by other figures, as in the Royal Triad motif. The Ọba is also distinguished by particular items of regalia, including the Oro projection from his crown, the distinctive beaded swag extending from his right hip, the Ewu ivie (coral-beaded shirt), and Ukpan obọ eva (crossed coral-beaded baldrics).

Since the early 20th century, scholars have sought to identify individual Ọbas represented on Emwin Arhe by analysing the regalia and other attributes of figures identified as monarchs, as well as the combinations of motifs and figures appearing on particular objects. Oral traditions and historical accounts, alongside European archival sources, have also played an important role in determining the identities of specific Ọbas (e.g., , ; ). Just as the institution of the monarchy developed and changed over time, so too did the ways in which Ọbas were represented by artists working within the royal guilds, including the Igun-Ẹrọnmwọn and Igbesamwan.