During the late 15th century, European visitors began arriving in Benin City and subsequently played important roles in trade, the military, religion, and belief. Edo artists incorporated a range of figures understood to represent Europeans into the visual language of Emwin Arre (royal treasures). These depictions served in part to communicate the power and reach of the Benin monarchy, making the “greatness of ruler and realm more palpable” and demonstrating that the Ọba’s authority extended beyond his own people to those who came from distant lands ( ).

European visitors came from a number of countries, including the Netherlands, Britain, France, and Italy. Portuguese visitors, however, had the most extensive and enduring influence, which is particularly evident in the visual language of Benin royal arts ( ).

European figures were incorporated into Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (bronze relief plaques), dating primarily to the 16th and 17th centuries, and Aken'ni Elao (carved tusks), dating from the 17th to the 19th centuries. They are typically depicted with straight, shoulder-length hair and/or beards, rounded cap-like headwear, heavily pleated skirts, and jerkins ( ). These figures often appear alongside other motifs associated with European trade and contact, such as Ugianranran (manillas) and horses, or with warfare, such as firearms. In addition to full-length figures, the Uhunmwu Ikpotoki (Portuguese head) was incorporated into a wide range of objects, most likely as a symbol of power and wealth associated with overseas trade and, by extension, with Olokun, the deity of the sea.

European figures also became part of the visual language developed by the Emada, palace pages whose carving tradition differed from that of the royal guild of wood and ivory carvers, the Igbesamwan. Although the precise origins of the Emada carving tradition are uncertain, it is thought to have developed during the reign of Ọba Adolo, and many surviving examples are therefore dated to the 19th century. Their representations of Europeans differ from the conventions used in earlier depictions understood to represent Portuguese visitors. Rather than wearing pleated skirts and jerkins, these later figures are typically shown in suits, wide-brimmed hats, and smoking pipes, and may carry straighter, sabre-like swords, guns, or umbrellas.

Many different kinds of Ẹrhu (headwear) are worn by the various figures depicted in the imagery of Benin royal artefacts. Through comparisons with ceremonial regalia still worn by chiefs and members of the royal court, including the Ọba himself, some Ẹrhu have been used to identify the different figures depicted. For example, the conical hat worn by high-ranking town chiefs as part of the pangolin regalia, still worn at ceremonies, is also visible on figures on some Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (bronze relief plaques) ( ). Other examples include the distinctive bell-shaped helmet associated with the Iyasẹ ( ). Figures who wear a shallow-brimmed hat and a cross have been identified as Ewua or Ohensa priests ( ).

Different kinds of helmets and headwear were worn by warriors, reflecting the many different ranks and roles in the army at any given time, as well as developing trends that were in turn represented on Emwin Arhe created at different points in time. Warrior figures wearing helmets covered in cowrie shells were carved on the Aken'ni Elao (carved tusks) (Blackmun 1984, p. 330), yet on the brass Ama, warriors are sometimes depicted wearing helmets made from crocodile hide or horsehair with a front plate (Osadolor in Plankensteiner 2007, cat. no. 238, p. 457). Helmets made from horsehair with a front plate are one of the more common types represented on the Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn, and the demand for black horse tails was noted by both Portuguese and British traders during the late 17th and 18th centuries (Osadolor in Plankensteiner 2007, cat. no. 238, p. 457). Other warriors depicted on Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn wear helmets with a rounded top, chinstrap, and sometimes also a feather tucked into the left side. These types of headwear are known as Ẹrhu Iyokuo.

Attire worn for battle also differed from that worn for ceremonial occasions, such as the pointed headwear worn in combination with an ornate leopard-head tunic by war chiefs. Depictions of figures wearing this attire on brass Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (bronze relief plaques) have been interpreted as representing the war chiefs’ participation in the war-ritual Isiokuo festival (Osadolor in Plankensteiner 2007, cat. no. 238, p. 457).

Another distinctive form of headwear is that worn by figures identified as leopard hunters on the brass Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (relief plaques). These large helmets cover almost all of the leopard hunters’ faces except for their noses, eyes, and upper lips, and are made of an unusual material that remains unidentifiable (Plankensteiner 2007, cat. nos. 68–69, p. 322).

European figures are also portrayed with distinctive hats, such as Portuguese three-cornered hats. These depictions reflect the artists’ keen observation and highlight the impact of European trade and military assistance (Ezra 1992).

Ekhara (umbrellas) play a multifaceted role in Benin art, reflecting both their function as status symbols and their association with European visitors. On some Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (bronze relief plaques), sunshades resembling Asa are held by the Ọba’s attendants to protect him from the sun. European-style Ekhara, as we know them today, are also depicted in late 19th-century wooden carvings produced by the Emada. In her analysis of the Aken'ni Elao, Barbara Blackmun ( ) observed that on earlier objects, umbrellas were generally depicted only in the hands of foreign figures rather than those identified as members of the Benin Kingdom.

On later objects, particularly those dating to the late 19th century, this changes. The Ọba and high-ranking chiefs such as the Ezọmọ are depicted being shielded from the sun by attendants carrying Ekhara, a practice also described by Europeans visiting Benin City (e.g., ). Like many imported luxury goods, the Ekhara was incorporated into the visual language of royal power and became an important status symbol, associated with the wealth, authority, and elevated position of those permitted to use it.

Asoro (spears) were used as weapons in battle and for hunting ( ; Ọbazee 2025, p. 37). According to , there were two types: long and short. Figures holding Asoro are often depicted on Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (bronze relief plaques), sometimes in battle scenes and at ceremonies and festivals.