Ọba gha ye Ivie gie ọwan, ẹ ghi tama rẹn ehe nọ gha bae yi (When the Ọba gifts you a bead, he doesn’t tell you how to wear it) (Daniel Inneh, pers. comm., 27 September 2025).

Iviawẹ (also spelled ĺvîowẹ) are coral-beaded anklets, often worn stacked together (Aigbe 1985, p. 28; Okpokunu, Agbontaen-Eghafona & Ojo 2005, p. 162; Ọbazee 2025, p. 279). Many of the figures depicted on the Emwin Arhe (royal treasures) in brass, bronze, ivory, and wood are shown wearing these. According to Daniel Inneh (pers. comm., 27 September 2025), beads were sent to people whom the Ọba wished to honour, although there was no directive on how to wear them.

Mostly, people who wear Iviawẹ are identified as palace chiefs or priests and priestesses. However, today anyone can wear them as cultural identifiers or fashion pieces.

The Ẹkpẹn (leopard) is an animal that appears most often among the motifs decorating the Emwin Arhe (royal treasures). The Ẹkpẹn symbolises the valour and strength of the Ọba, as well as his political authority. The Benin people eulogise the Ọba as the ‘ẹkpẹn n'owa’ (leopard of the home).

When a hunter kills a leopard, he must say “ẹkpẹn n'oha” (I killed a bush leopard), as it is taboo to say that a hunter killed a leopard without specifying that it is a bush leopard, as otherwise this would “be tantamount to symbolically killing the king” (Nevadomsky 1988, p. 81). For this reason, leopards of the bush are called Atalakpa to distinguish them from those that represent the Ọba.

Uhanbọ (bows) and Ifẹnmwẹ (arrows) were produced by members of the Iwifenmwen (guild of archers and manufacturers of poisoned arrows). Arrows, particularly poisoned arrows, were used in warfare. When depicted on Emwin Arhe (royal treasures), Uhanbọ and Ifẹnmwẹ are believed to represent Ake, the deity of archery. According to Aisien (in Plankensteiner 2007, cat. no. 218, p. 438), Ake was an expert marksman who lived during the reign of Ọba Ẹwuare (c. 1440–1473 AD) and is credited with inventing the poisoned arrow used in hunting and warfare.

Figures wearing a headdress with a single protrusion from the crown of the head, known as the Oro, are found only among the Ọba and a select category of palace dignitaries whose ancestors originated in ancient Ile Ife ( ; Ọbazee 2025, p. 407). Only the Osa and Osuan, custodians of the Uwen and Ora deities, as well as members of the Emuru, who are responsible for the care of Iru vessels, may wear a headdress with the Oro. The identification of different figures is therefore interpreted based on the combination of the Oro with other items of regalia. Artists in the Igun-Ẹrọnmwọn and Igbesamwan depicted figures with the Oro on Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (bronze relief plaques) and Aken'ni Elao (carved tusks), respectively. The Oro would either be made of coral beads as part of the crown or headdress, or be woven from itoto fibre ( ).

Ebe Amẹ refers to a wide variety of plants, particularly the leaves of the water fern or river leaf, found in riverine areas of southern Nigeria ( ). Artists from the Igun-Ẹrọnmwọn used these as a decorative motif in the background of most Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (bronze relief plaques). The petals of the Ebe Amẹ, like the points of the ἀghàdàgháda (crossroads), represent the four cardinal directions: north, east, south, and west. The number four plays a foundational role in the Edo calendar, which is structured around four market days ( ).

Abuwa ornaments are made from red ododo cloth and are a symbol of wealth (Inneh 2007, pp. 110–111). ‘Abuwa’ is understood to translate directly as “hand of wealth” (Ezra 1992, p. 313). The Abuwa is worn at the waist by high-ranking chiefs as part of their ‘pangolin skin’ ceremonial regalia (Inneh 2007, p. 110) and continues to be worn today.

Ukpan obọ ọkpa is a single baldric worn diagonally across the torso, from the left shoulder to the right hip. Barbara Blackmun described these baldrics as an “Ẹkpẹn band,” worn by figures as “a sign of distinction” ( ).

Odigba (coral-beaded collar) is a rigid neck collar made of coral beads, worn as part of ceremonial attire only by senior princes who have been made Enigie (Inneh 2007, p. 107). Although Ibafe (2007, p. 43) argued that the Odigba was introduced during the Ogiso period (c. 900–c. 1170 AD) by Ogiso Ere, along with other symbolically important Emwin Arhe, such as the Ada (ceremonial sword) and the Ẹbẹn (ceremonial sword), this seems unlikely, as coral was only introduced in the late 15th century through trade with Portuguese merchants.

Ikharo are linear keloid markings depicted on the forehead of Uhunmwu-Elao (commemorative heads) in groups of three or four above each eye. The exact meaning of Ikharo is debated; some have argued that they relate to the gender or tribal identification of the person on whom they are depicted. For example, has argued that they were worn only by men; however, their use in depictions is not consistent with this, and the Iy’Ọba are also shown wearing them. argued that they are instead a stylistic feature employed by artists that varied over time.

The naming of these markings differs between publications. For example, describe these markings as “agbaguda n'ehae”, which they write translates literally as “blades of the forehead”. However, later went on to call these “ikharo”, as used here. referred to these forehead markings as ikharo, meaning “tribal mark [of eye]”.

The Ititi ako is a cluster of coral beads, usually three or four, attached to a pin and used to embellish the royal crowns on Uhunmwu-Elao (commemorative heads) and Uhunmwu-Ẹkuẹ (pendant masks). These bead clusters are also known as star beads, which indicate the prosperous destiny of an individual or wearer. Apart from enhancing the appearance of the wearer, they also represent the individual’s high social status. Judging from their presence on a variety of head sculptures, both men and women wore Ititi ako.

In the riverine area surrounding Benin City, there are two types of crocodile. The Ẹghughu, known in English as the dwarf or bush crocodile, is believed to be more docile ( ; Ọbazee 2025, p. 133). The second type is the Àgbákà, the aggressive Nile crocodile ( ; Ọbazee 2025, p. 11).

Crocodiles are one of the important animals represented in the historical Emwin Arhe, and they are known as Olokun’s guards or the “policemen” of the waters. The powerful and ferocious qualities of these animals might explain why warrior figures are often depicted wearing Uhunmwu-Ẹkuẹ (pendant masks) in the shape of crocodile heads on Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (bronze relief plaques) ( ). Olokun devotees use crocodiles as sacrificial animals in offerings during the worship of Olokun.