Ẹgogo (gongs) hold significant importance in Benin art and ritual, serving as powerful instruments with both practical and symbolic roles. Ivory gongs, especially “double-bell” types, were highly prized and reserved for the royal court, particularly those made entirely of ivory, which were used exclusively by the Ọba. The whiteness of ivory Ẹgogo symbolises purity and peace and is linked to sacred Orhue (white kaolin chalk) and the deity Olokun (Blackmun 2007, cat. no. 60, p. 315).

When depicted in the imagery of the Emwin Arhe (royal treasures), Ẹgogo are usually held by figures such as the Ọba or high-ranking chiefs, illustrating their historical and ongoing use as idiophones during ceremonies and festivals. The Ọba dances with an ornately carved ivory Ẹgogo during the Emobo festival, which takes place three days after the Iguẹ festival (Ben-Amos 1995, p. 108).

The Ubanu'hi (infinity symbol) is a kind of guilloche or interlaced strapwork motif that can be angular or rounded. It was used by Edo artists in the decoration of many Emwin Arhe (royal treasures) and is ubiquitous in Benin royal arts. Ubanu'hi is a shortened form of “uba no Ọba ya de agbon ke ehimwin yi”, which means “the rope with which the Ọba ties the heaven and earth together” (pers. comm. Chief John Igbineweka Inneh n’Igbesawman, 2022). Similarly, Paula Ben-Amos Girshick (in Plankensteiner 2007, pp. 339, 341) described this as “Ọba n’iri agbon”, or the “rope of the world” pattern.

According to Ọbabanmu Ineh (in Blackmun 1984, p. 51), the use of this motif indicates that objects were carved by members of the Igbesanmwan. However, the motif is found on all types of Emwin Arhe (royal treasures), not only those made of ivory or wood. On the flanges of the Ama (relief plaques) alone, Kathryn Gunsch (2018, pp. 75–77) identified three different versions of the Ubanu'hi and, through her analysis of over 850 plaques, found that these different Ubanu'hi forms align with other characteristics, such as dimensions, the prevalence of ornamental motifs, and stylistic qualities. Together, these provide evidence, she argues, of different production groups among the plaque makers .

Kate Ezra (1992, pp. 209, 264) went on to argue that the use of these motifs indicates that certain objects were used in a “royal context” and were associated with “royal patronage”.

Ẹguẹn are worn by the Ọba and chiefs as part of their Ehaengbehia, the full regalia worn during special ceremonies. Ẹguẹn are worn around the ankles or calves and can be made from beads, ivory, brass or even iron. A separate category, called Elubase, refers to those which have integrated rattles or crotal bell attachments, however both are described as anklets in English.

As early as 1899, Read and Dalton commented that the anklets worn by figures shown on plaques were a signifier of high rank. Today, anklets continue to signify social status, with the Ọba wearing many ivory and coral anklets stretching up his calves as part of his ceremonial regalia (Okpokunu, Agbontaen‐Eghafona & Ojo, 2005, p.162[106]). However, anklets were not the preserve of the Ọba alone, and different kinds and quantities were worn by other members of the royal court and Edo people. For example, Flora Kaplan (2006, p.85[107]) described a photograph of Iy’Ọba Aghahowa N’Errua, who took her title in 1981, in which she wears coral anklets as one of a number of insignia of her newly invested high rank. In contrast, brass anklets would be worn by young male attendants to the Ọba (see attendant figure), such as sword bearers or Emada pages (Kaplan, 2006, p.90[107]).

Although many other members of the Benin royal court wore a variety of hats and forms of headwear, only the Ọba may wear the Ẹde (beaded crown). The Ọba must never be seen bare-headed, and successive Ọbas introduced different styles and types of crowns ( ).

Across different media and objects, Ọbas are depicted wearing various types of crowns, all elaborately crafted from coral beads. Some feature tall projections rising from the crown, known as Oro, while others have curved projections extending from either side of the head, known as the winged cap. The latter was introduced only in the 19th century, most likely by Ọba Osẹmwẹndẹ ( ). Depictions of Ọba Esigie on Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (bronze relief plaques) show him wearing an elaborate crown decorated with large jasper or coral beads ( ).

Ughavan (celts) are often seen as part of the decoration along the flanges of the Uhunmwu-Elao (commemorative heads), alongside trunk hand, leopard, or cow’s head motifs, or held in the left hand of the Ọba on the Ikẹgobọ (altar to the hand). This imagery has a particular meaning: when the Ọba holds the Ughavan in his left hand, it is said to be known instead as isauan (faeces of thunder) and is believed to “increase the potency of a curse or a blessing” ( ).

The Ọba is the monarch of the Edo people and Kingdom. The current reigning monarch, Ọba Ẹwuare II, is the fortieth Ọba of the current dynasty, which is traditionally understood to have begun around 1170 AD ( ). Over the centuries, the role and conception of the monarch have shifted, and the Emwin Arre (royal treasures) and the visual language they carry provide important evidence for understanding these developments. Although Emwin Arhe served a variety of functions within court life and ritual, “their primary purpose was to glorify the godlike king and the history of the powerful empire” (Plankensteiner 2007, p. 25). Representations of the Ọba are therefore ubiquitous across Benin court arts and frequently occupy a central position within their visual language.

Representations of the Ọba can be recognised through a combination of characteristics, including his size, as he is usually depicted larger than other figures, and his position within compositions, where he may appear in front of or be supported by other figures, as in the Royal Triad motif. The Ọba is also distinguished by particular items of regalia, including the Oro projection from his crown, the distinctive beaded swag extending from his right hip, the Ewu ivie (coral-beaded shirt), and Ukpan obọ eva (crossed coral-beaded baldrics).

Since the early 20th century, scholars have sought to identify individual Ọbas represented on Emwin Arhe by analysing the regalia and other attributes of figures identified as monarchs, as well as the combinations of motifs and figures appearing on particular objects. Oral traditions and historical accounts, alongside European archival sources, have also played an important role in determining the identities of specific Ọbas (e.g., , ; ). Just as the institution of the monarchy developed and changed over time, so too did the ways in which Ọbas were represented by artists working within the royal guilds, including the Igun-Ẹrọnmwọn and Igbesamwan.

Ẹbẹn are a type of ceremonial sword of significant importance in the Benin Kingdom. During ceremonies, titled chiefs would hold them or toss them during dances, thereby paying homage to the Ọba at these public events, particularly when a chief receives a certain status. It is forbidden for Ẹbẹn to touch the ground, so the chief must take extra precautions to avoid dropping the Ẹbẹn during the dance. Therefore, the Okae-Odionmwan (head of executioners) dances with the Umozo (warfare or executioner’s sword) behind the dancing chief.

There are two central ceremonial swords used in the royal court of the Benin Kingdom, one of which is the Ẹbẹn, along with the Ada (ceremonial swords). They are distinguished by their blades: the Ẹbẹn blade reflects the shape of a leaf or an oar. Sometimes, it is decorated with openwork designs and/or brass inlays, most commonly shaped as small Ẹbẹn and Ẹkpẹn (leopards). The handle of the Ẹbẹn also has an unusual ring-shaped form, which further differentiates it from the Ada.

The Ukpan obọ eva (coral-bead crossed baldrics) were worn as part of the ehaingbehia, the full ceremonial regalia, by only high-ranking members of the palace, including the Ọba himself, the Iy’Ọba, the Edaiken, and the Ezọmọ (Ben-Amos 1999, pp. 68, 141; Osadolor in Plankensteiner 2007, cat. no. 70, pp. 322–323).

This oval-shaped bead with faceted sides is known as the Ivie okpagbaru or Ivie Ewuare (the ‘royal bead’ or ‘Ewuare bead’). The association of Ọba Ewuare with this bead is based on a story in which Ewuare took beads from the deity Olokun, sanctifying his royal position and, in turn, receiving the title ‘Lord of the Land’, in contrast to Olokun’s title ‘Lord of the Sea’ (Omomo of Enisen in Blackmun 1990, p. 65). The Ivie okpagbaru/Ivie Ewuare is a distinctive motif that can be used to identify representations of the Ọba.

Due to the association of beads with Olokun, it is unsurprising that this bead has come to symbolise wealth when used to decorate Emwin Arhe (royal treasures) (Blackmun 1984, p. 59). Paula Ben-Amos (1999, p. 64) associated the bead with a different narrative and the name ‘One Bead Does Not Go around the Neck’. Ben-Amos suggests that the bead is in fact the one that was fought over by Ọba Ẹsigie and his brother Aruanran when they struggled for the right to the throne in the early 16th century.