Iwu are facial and body markings (scarifications) that were historically worn by Edo men and women. However, since the 1960s, the practice has been nearly extinct (Aisien 2011). In the past, Iwu were used as a way of proving that one was an Edo citizen, and the ceremony of having Iwu completed was an important rite of passage for men and women. The Osiwu, who also practised circumcision and other surgical procedures, would carry out the procedure of adding Iwu. There are different types of Iwu: ‘blades’ worn on the torso (Iwu-eko), and those worn on the face, such as Ikharo (three or four markings above the eyebrows), Irho (two narrow ‘blades’ worn on each cheek), Ovbihue (nasal ‘blades’), Ovbi-agbanmwen (chin ‘blade’), and Igho-okpa/Ukpgho (three forehead ‘blades’) (Aisien 2011, p. 22).

The number of Iwu also varied depending on the identity of the person wearing them. For example, royal men would wear six ‘blades’ on their torso, whilst men who were not royal would wear seven ‘blades’. Meanwhile, the Ọba’s female children would wear fifteen ‘blades’, and all other women would wear sixteen (Aisien 2011).

The Ohian Ẹkpẹn is a significant ceremonial garment in Benin royal court art, primarily associated with warriors and military officials, underscoring their delegated authority and ferocious skill as warriors (Ben-Amos 1995, fig. 93).

The leopard tunic is typically made from leather and cloth decorated to imitate leopard skin, usually with the face of a leopard emblazoned on the chest using appliqué. An Akọn Ẹkpẹn (leopard tooth neck ornament) and quadrangular Ẹroro (bells) are often worn on top of the Ohian Ẹkpẹn. This tunic would be worn by the Ọba’s military chiefs (Blackmun 1984, p. 323).

In historical Benin, the Ọba held the exclusive right to distribute leopard skins to those officials to whom he delegated the power to take human life. This made the leopard tunic a potent symbol of delegated authority over life and death. Osarhieme Benson Osadolor (in Plankensteiner 2007, cat. no. 244, p. 459) recalled an Edo proverb: “It is the head of the leopard that accomplishes things for the leopard,” which is particularly significant for warrior chiefs, as this proverb indicates that the Ọba, known as the “Leopard of the Home,” relied on them to carry out his military campaigns.

Hornblower and flute-player figures recur frequently in the visual language of Emwin Arhe (royal treasures), particularly on Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (bronze relief plaques) and Aken’ni Elao (carved tusks). Horns and flutes made from ivory and brass have long been used in the Benin Kingdom, with ivory instruments continuing to be used today ( ).

Akohẹn are the largest type of horn and were used exclusively by the Ọba’s retainers before sacrifices in the palace. The Ikpakohẹn is a specialist hornblower responsible for playing the ivory Akohẹn, a role introduced during the reign of Ọba Eresonyẹn. According to Ọba Akẹnzua II, a group of six hornblowers from Use played these horns during Ugie (in Bradbury 1957, B.S. 85; ). Another type of horn, the Oko, was used by Ebo “to call witches and wizards to come to the crossroads” ( ).

Ọba Akẹnzua II (in Bradbury 1957, B.S. 85) also described the Eziken, a thin, side-blown fife or flute made from calabash or ivory. These instruments were played by members of the Ikpeziken, the guild of royal flute players, who performed as part of musical ensembles during ceremonies such as Ugie.

Many different kinds of Ẹrhu (headwear) are worn by the various figures depicted in the imagery of Benin royal artefacts. Through comparisons with ceremonial regalia still worn by chiefs and members of the royal court, including the Ọba himself, some Ẹrhu have been used to identify the different figures depicted. For example, the conical hat worn by high-ranking town chiefs as part of the pangolin regalia, still worn at ceremonies, is also visible on figures on some Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (bronze relief plaques) ( ). Other examples include the distinctive bell-shaped helmet associated with the Iyasẹ ( ). Figures who wear a shallow-brimmed hat and a cross have been identified as Ewua or Ohensa priests ( ).

Different kinds of helmets and headwear were worn by warriors, reflecting the many different ranks and roles in the army at any given time, as well as developing trends that were in turn represented on Emwin Arhe created at different points in time. Warrior figures wearing helmets covered in cowrie shells were carved on the Aken'ni Elao (carved tusks) (Blackmun 1984, p. 330), yet on the brass Ama, warriors are sometimes depicted wearing helmets made from crocodile hide or horsehair with a front plate (Osadolor in Plankensteiner 2007, cat. no. 238, p. 457). Helmets made from horsehair with a front plate are one of the more common types represented on the Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn, and the demand for black horse tails was noted by both Portuguese and British traders during the late 17th and 18th centuries (Osadolor in Plankensteiner 2007, cat. no. 238, p. 457). Other warriors depicted on Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn wear helmets with a rounded top, chinstrap, and sometimes also a feather tucked into the left side. These types of headwear are known as Ẹrhu Iyokuo.

Attire worn for battle also differed from that worn for ceremonial occasions, such as the pointed headwear worn in combination with an ornate leopard-head tunic by war chiefs. Depictions of figures wearing this attire on brass Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (bronze relief plaques) have been interpreted as representing the war chiefs’ participation in the war-ritual Isiokuo festival (Osadolor in Plankensteiner 2007, cat. no. 238, p. 457).

Another distinctive form of headwear is that worn by figures identified as leopard hunters on the brass Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (relief plaques). These large helmets cover almost all of the leopard hunters’ faces except for their noses, eyes, and upper lips, and are made of an unusual material that remains unidentifiable (Plankensteiner 2007, cat. nos. 68–69, p. 322).

European figures are also portrayed with distinctive hats, such as Portuguese three-cornered hats. These depictions reflect the artists’ keen observation and highlight the impact of European trade and military assistance (Ezra 1992).

Odigba (coral-beaded collar) is a rigid neck collar made of coral beads, worn as part of ceremonial attire only by senior princes who have been made Enigie (Inneh 2007, p. 107). Although Ibafe (2007, p. 43) argued that the Odigba was introduced during the Ogiso period (c. 900–c. 1170 AD) by Ogiso Ere, along with other symbolically important Emwin Arhe, such as the Ada (ceremonial sword) and the Ẹbẹn (ceremonial sword), this seems unlikely, as coral was only introduced in the late 15th century through trade with Portuguese merchants.

Akohẹn, or ivory horns, are played by members of the Ikpakoen (guild of ivory hornblowers), while Oko, or flutes, are played by members of the Ikpeziken (guild of royal flute players). Among the Emwin Arhe (royal treasures), Oko and Akohẹn are usually depicted being played by brass-cast figures representing members of these guilds, and also appear on Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (bronze relief plaques), Aken'ni Elao (carved altar tusks), and Urhotọ (altar tableau).

Today in Benin City, when a public procession leaves the palace, a court official may sound side-blown horns made from ivory. Historically, these instruments were also used during warfare, where they were played alongside Ema (drums) and Ẹroro (bells), producing a “cacophony of sound” whose “[t]he psychological effect of the barrage of noise magnified the size of Benin’s forces” ( ).

Some Oko/Akohẹn were also cast in brass by members of the Igun-Ẹrọnmwọn. However, these brass examples are understood not to have been functional instruments and could not have been blown like their ivory counterparts ( ).