Figures wearing a headdress with a single protrusion from the crown of the head, known as the Oro, are found only among the Ọba and a select category of palace dignitaries whose ancestors originated in ancient Ile Ife ( ; Ọbazee 2025, p. 407). Only the Osa and Osuan, custodians of the Uwen and Ora deities, as well as members of the Emuru, who are responsible for the care of Iru vessels, may wear a headdress with the Oro. The identification of different figures is therefore interpreted based on the combination of the Oro with other items of regalia. Artists in the Igun-Ẹrọnmwọn and Igbesamwan depicted figures with the Oro on Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (bronze relief plaques) and Aken'ni Elao (carved tusks), respectively. The Oro would either be made of coral beads as part of the crown or headdress, or be woven from itoto fibre ( ).

Ikharo are linear keloid markings depicted on the forehead of Uhunmwu-Elao (commemorative heads) in groups of three or four above each eye. The exact meaning of Ikharo is debated; some have argued that they relate to the gender or tribal identification of the person on whom they are depicted. For example, has argued that they were worn only by men; however, their use in depictions is not consistent with this, and the Iy’Ọba are also shown wearing them. argued that they are instead a stylistic feature employed by artists that varied over time.

The naming of these markings differs between publications. For example, describe these markings as “agbaguda n'ehae”, which they write translates literally as “blades of the forehead”. However, later went on to call these “ikharo”, as used here. referred to these forehead markings as ikharo, meaning “tribal mark [of eye]”.

Odigba (coral-beaded collar) is a rigid neck collar made of coral beads, worn as part of ceremonial attire only by senior princes who have been made Enigie (Inneh 2007, p. 107). Although Ibafe (2007, p. 43) argued that the Odigba was introduced during the Ogiso period (c. 900–c. 1170 AD) by Ogiso Ere, along with other symbolically important Emwin Arhe, such as the Ada (ceremonial sword) and the Ẹbẹn (ceremonial sword), this seems unlikely, as coral was only introduced in the late 15th century through trade with Portuguese merchants.

The Unwẹnrhiẹnọtan (switch) is made from branches of a tall shrub and is held by the Ọba and certain chiefs, such as the Osuan and Ooton, during sacrificial rituals and ceremonies, particularly Ugie Erha Ọba (B ). Figures carrying Unwẹnrhiẹnọtan are depicted in brass on the Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (bronze relief plaques) and also carved in ivory on the Aken'ni Elao (altar tusk).

According to Barbara Blackmun ( ), the Unwẹnrhiẹnọtan “is required whenever the sacrifice of a living creature takes place within the Ọba’s palace complex, to drive away intrusive spiritual forces. The upright position of this essential implement suggests that the person who holds it is about to preside over a sacrificial ceremony.”

Ẹguẹn are worn by the Ọba and chiefs as part of their Ehaengbehia, the full regalia worn during special ceremonies. Ẹguẹn are worn around the ankles or calves and can be made from beads, ivory, brass or even iron. A separate category, called Elubase, refers to those which have integrated rattles or crotal bell attachments, however both are described as anklets in English.

As early as 1899, Read and Dalton commented that the anklets worn by figures shown on plaques were a signifier of high rank. Today, anklets continue to signify social status, with the Ọba wearing many ivory and coral anklets stretching up his calves as part of his ceremonial regalia (Okpokunu, Agbontaen‐Eghafona & Ojo, 2005, p.162[106]). However, anklets were not the preserve of the Ọba alone, and different kinds and quantities were worn by other members of the royal court and Edo people. For example, Flora Kaplan (2006, p.85[107]) described a photograph of Iy’Ọba Aghahowa N’Errua, who took her title in 1981, in which she wears coral anklets as one of a number of insignia of her newly invested high rank. In contrast, brass anklets would be worn by young male attendants to the Ọba (see attendant figure), such as sword bearers or Emada pages (Kaplan, 2006, p.90[107]).

“Only Osa and the Osuan know what is in the palm frond” ( )

The title of Osuan is paired with that of Osa, and both were created by Ọba Ewuare I to protect the Ọba and the Edo people as a whole ( ). According to Inneh ( ), the Osuan is responsible for Ora, the deity associated with fertility. The Osuan is therefore responsible for ensuring the fecundity of the land and people of the Kingdom ( ).

During ceremonies such as Ugie and Oduduwa, the Osa and Osuan support the Ọba on either side, a pose that is frequently reflected in the visual language of Emwin Arhe (royal treasures) ( ). Both are often depicted wearing basketry headwear with a pointed Oro projection, similar to the headwear still worn by holders of these titles today ( ). The Osuan, as well as other members of the Ooton guild to which the titleholder belongs, are often depicted holding an Unwẹnrhiẹnọtan (switch) in one or both hands. This pose reflects the historical role of the Osuan during sacrificial ceremonies, when the Unwẹnrhiẹnọtan was held aloft to “fend off intrusive spirits that crowded around as the victim died” ( ).

During the Igue festival, both the Osa and Osuan wrap raffia palm cloth around their waists, which “indicate[s] the deep secrecy of the inner details of the palace worship and Ugie ceremonies” ( ).

The Emuru are a guild established during the reign of Ọba Ẹwuare I, who appointed its members to care for the sacred Uru (brass vessels). The Emuru are responsible for ensuring that the Uru are brought to the palace for the festivals and ceremonies in which they are required, including Ugie.

Members of the Emuru are represented on both Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (bronze relief plaques) and Aken'ni Elao (carved tusks), although their appearance differs between the two media. On the Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn, artists from the Igun-Ẹrọnmwọn depict Emuru carrying sacred Uru topped with a ram’s-head finial and flanked by coiled braids. Like the Osa and Osuan, members of the guild were permitted to wear the tall Oro projection woven from itoto fibre extending from the crown. They also wear a chain around the hips and skirts with patterned sashes hanging down on either side ( ).

On Aken'ni Elao produced from the 18th century onward, however, the Emuru are generally depicted in a more simplified form. In all but one known example, they carry a simplified Uru without the ram’s-head finial, holding it directly in front of the torso rather than on the left shoulder. Their skirt-like garments are also replaced by what Blackmun describes as a “diaper-like” wrapper ( ). The single exception is an Aken'ni Elao dated to approximately 1730–1750. Here, the Emuru remain simplified, but the figures retain the Oro projection on their crowns; the characteristic coiled braids are absent and their clothing is likewise simplified.

On the Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (bronze relief plaques) and Aken'ni Elao (carved tusks), a particularly sacred type of brass Iru is shown being carried by members of the Emuru. These are globular jug-like vessels cast in brass with a long neck, topped with a ram’s head form. However, fragments of a similarly shaped bronze object (E 1902.457) have been identified, suggesting that this may have been a rattle rather than a vessel ( ).

Members of the Emuru guild, which dates back to the reign of Ọba Ẹwuare I, are shown holding Iru, particularly on the Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn. According to oral tradition, these Iru were taken by Ọba Ewuare from Olokun’s palace. Their spiritual powers were manifested through voices chanting “ise,” the affirmation used in Edo prayers. However, when Olua succeeded Ẹwuare I, he smashed the Uru and found nothing inside them. Only afterwards were the Emuru instructed to carry Uru resembling those taken by Ewuare ( ; ; Chief Osuma in Bradbury 1958, B.S. 113).

Ėwùϙsዕtỏ is the Edo term for a long, woven garment (Ọbazee 2025, p. 144). The Osuan, the high priest of Uwen, and the Ooton may both wear the Ėwùϙsዕtỏ, making it difficult to distinguish between the two figures based on their attire alone. In depictions on Aken'ni Elao, figures identified as Ooton are more commonly represented than the Osuan specifically ( ). Both figures are also depicted holding Unwẹnrhiẹnọtan (switches) alongside the Ėwùϙsዕtỏ.

Today, neither the Osuan nor the Ooton wears the long gown, although both are associated with a distinctive hairstyle ( ). On ivory and brass Emwin Arhe (royal treasures), the Ooton or Osuan is depicted wearing the Ėwùϙsዕtỏ with his left hand placed on his chest, over a bulge beneath the gown. This bulge is understood to conceal the jawbone of the deceased Iyasẹ, which the Ooton wears. According to Barbara Blackmun ( ), because the Iyasẹ was the leader of the opposition to the Ọba, the jawbone became the “locus of the Iyasẹ’s disturbing dissent as he voices disagreement.” As a result, the Iyasẹ’s family was required to give the jawbone to members of the Ooton guild, who kept it in the royal palace.

The Benin people use beads as one of their most important ceremonial body ornaments. There are coral and stone beads, which came mostly from long distance trade. The bead workers of Benin kingdom are called Enisen and they specialise in the art of bead making, particularly the royal regalia. Different types of beads are also worn for various ceremonies. The greatest honour anyone can get in Benin kingdom and from the Oba is to be decorated with a bead, the Ikele - a symbol of nobility.

Hairstyles are used to determine a person's status in the society, as chiefs, common folks, chief's wives and the wives of the Ọba all wear different hairstyles. We have Okuku, Ikpe~okhokho, Idu~akpata

Ebe Amẹ refers to a wide variety of plants, particularly the leaves of the water fern or river leaf, found in riverine areas of southern Nigeria ( ). Artists from the Igun-Ẹrọnmwọn used these as a decorative motif in the background of most Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (bronze relief plaques). The petals of the Ebe Amẹ, like the points of the ἀghàdàgháda (crossroads), represent the four cardinal directions: north, east, south, and west. The number four plays a foundational role in the Edo calendar, which is structured around four market days ( ).

The Umọmọ is an L-shaped hammer made of iron that holds profound importance, symbolising power, transformation, and spiritual efficacy. The hammer is fundamentally associated with Ogun, the god of iron, embodying “the force inherent in metal, [with] a mystical power with the potential to create or destroy” ( ). This dual aspect of the hammer—its capacity for both shaping and destruction—mirrors the formidable power of the Ọba. The L-shaped hammer is often associated specifically with Ọba Eresonyẹn, as it most commonly appears within the visual language of Emwin Arhe (royal treasures) that he commissioned, for example, held by Ewua figures and on one ornate cast Ẹrhẹ, thought to have been Ọba Eresonyẹn’s throne (id. no. 209779) ( ).

The hammer is notably held by figures identified as Ewua palace officials or Ohensa priests, who also wear a cross pendant on their chests. The consistent portrayal of these figures holding the Umọmọ underscores its connection to the origins of the Benin dynasty and the spiritual authority of the Ọba. Ọba Esigie, the powerful 16th-century “warrior king”, is credited with encouraging ironworking, further solidifying the hammer’s link to royal martial strength and divine kingship.

Appearing on Aken'ni Elao (carved ivory tusks), Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (bronze relief plaques), and even as a charm, the hammer symbolises the Ọba’s ability to “mold and transform” events, to overcome challenges, and to provide spiritual protection ( ). Its presence thus reinforces the complex interplay of hierarchy, spiritual authority, and military might within the Benin Kingdom, consistent with other potent symbols such as the Akọn Ẹkpẹn (leopard’s tooth neck ornament). The Umọmọ often appears on Emwin Arhe (royal treasures) believed to have been commissioned during the reign of Ọba Eresonyẹn ( ; ).

Other terms for hammer in Edo are Avan or Avalaka ( ), which are used interchangeably with Umọmọ by members of the Igun-Ẹrọnmwọn.