Ebe Amẹ refers to a wide variety of plants, particularly the leaves of the water fern or river leaf, found in riverine areas of southern Nigeria ( ). Artists from the Igun-Ẹrọnmwọn used these as a decorative motif in the background of most Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (bronze relief plaques). The petals of the Ebe Amẹ, like the points of the ἀghàdàgháda (crossroads), represent the four cardinal directions: north, east, south, and west. The number four plays a foundational role in the Edo calendar, which is structured around four market days ( ).

Ẹroro (bells) frequently appear as ornaments worn by figures depicted on the Emwin Arhe, particularly on Ama-Eronmwon (bronze relief plaques) and Aken’ni Elao (carved tusks). These Ẹroro are most commonly quadrangular in form or, less commonly, cylindrical with rounded tops. Quadrangular Ẹroro worn around the neck are often part of the attire that indicates that figures can be interpreted as warriors, alongside the Akọn Ẹkpẹn (leopard tooth neck ornament) and the Ohian Ẹkpẹn (leopard tunics).

Akọn Ẹkpẹn are necklaces or neck ornaments made of strung leopard’s teeth. They are worn by figures to signify their high rank and military prowess, as well as by their leaders, the Ezọmọ or Iyasẹ. They are often worn alongside quadrangular Ẹroro (bells) and Ohian Ẹkpẹn (leopard tunics).

The Akọn Ẹkpẹn is clearly and profoundly related to the symbolism of the Ẹkpẹn (leopard) and its association with the Ọba (king), who is metaphorically referred to as ‘ẹkpẹn ne owa’, the ‘leopard of the home’. On the other hand, the Ẹkpẹn is often referred to as the ‘king of the bush’, embodying ferocity, aggression, strength, and leadership—qualities attributed to the Ọba (Nevadomsky 1988). This intricate link between the leopard, the monarch, and his military leaders reinforces the complex hierarchy and spiritual authority central to Benin’s courtly art.

Asoro (spears) were used as weapons in battle and for hunting ( ; Ọbazee 2025, p. 37). According to , there were two types: long and short. Figures holding Asoro are often depicted on Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (bronze relief plaques), sometimes in battle scenes and at ceremonies and festivals.

Depictions of Ewi (mudfish) are among the most frequent motifs in the Emwin Arhe (royal treasures). Mudfish hold an important place in Edo belief, both as representations of the god Olokun and as symbols of royalty (Plankensteiner 2007, p. 410), as well as of “prosperity, peace, well-being and fertility” (Ben-Amos 1976, p. 245). Mudfish are also particularly common animals for sacrifice, and mudfish-shaped Orhiẹvbẹ (kola-nut boxes) were used to make offerings or store kola nuts.

Yet, the appearance of Ewi across the Emwin Arhe is not consistent, and it has been argued that different species of mudfish were depicted by Edo artists, each with different qualities and capabilities. For example, the electric shock of Malapterurus electricus resembles the fierceness of the Ọba, while the liminal qualities of the Synodontis clarias mudfish, which lives both on land and in water, similarly reflect the Ọba’s rule over land and sea (Gallagher 1983, p. 93). With these different qualities in mind, the mudfish is an important symbol of Benin kingship and royalty.

Sometimes the Ọba was depicted by artists with mudfish rather than legs (see Ọba with Mudfish Legs).

Asa (shields) are a crucial attribute of warriors and warrior chiefs, forming part of their ceremonial and battle attire as represented on the Emwin Arhe (royal treasures). Asa were usually made from elephant or crocodile skin and used by warriors for protection during hand-to-hand combat (Osadolor 2001, p. 102). Interestingly, the form of Asa depicted on historic royal artefacts differs from those found in museum collections today, reflecting changes in shield shapes and designs over time.

Warrior chiefs or commanders are often depicted on the Emwin Arhe, in particular the Ama - Eronmwon (bronze relief plaques) and the Aken’ni Elao (carved tusks). Edo artists often represented Warrior Chiefs using attire such as Ohian Ẹkpẹn (leopard tunics) and Akọn Ẹkpen (leopard’s tooth neck ornament), which they are often shown wearing during ceremonial occasions such as Isiokuo. Warrior chiefs, or the attendants who often accompany them, may also carry an Asa (shield) or an Ẹbẹn (ceremonial sword). Additionally, a number of representations in both brass and ivory show War Chiefs riding on horseback, an indication of their social status, military rank and prowess (Osadolor in Plankensteiner 2007, cat. nr.62, p.316; cat. nr.244, p.459).

In the Edo military hierarchy, there are four key titles for those bestowed with the highest rank, namely the Iyase or the Generalissimo who was second in command to the Ọba. Next in line is the non-hereditary title of Ezomo, part of the Uzama Nihinron. Next in command, is the Edogun, commander of the Ekaiwe, made up of the sons of the Ọba’s daughters. The Edogun would brief the Ọba on war plans, strategies and tactics, the general appraisal of military strength and also had the role of declaring war by displaying the Asa (battle shield) and then marking the end of war by returning the Asa. The Ekegbian, head of the Isienmwenro (royal guards in the Ọba Palace and with detachments in most Edo towns), was next in the chain of command. Only the Ọba could command the Ekegbian to mobilise the Isienmwenro for battle (Osadolor 2007, pp.78-9).

The Iyase can often be identified by the rounded bell-shaped headwear artists depict him wearing across different types of Emwin Arhe, from Ama - Eronmwon (bronze relief plaques), to Aken ni’Elao, and carved representations on idiophone staffs. However, identifying the Ezomo is less easy to identify, although figures wearing a peaked helmet and the usual symbols of military commanders have been identified as representations of the Ezomo (Blackmun in Plankensteiner 2007, cat. nrs. 118-9, p.363)