Asa (shields) are a crucial attribute of warriors and warrior chiefs, forming part of their ceremonial and battle attire as represented on the Emwin Arhe (royal treasures). Asa were usually made from elephant or crocodile skin and used by warriors for protection during hand-to-hand combat (Osadolor 2001, p. 102). Interestingly, the form of Asa depicted on historic royal artefacts differs from those found in museum collections today, reflecting changes in shield shapes and designs over time.

Asoro (spears) were used as weapons in battle and for hunting ( ; Ọbazee 2025, p. 37). According to , there were two types: long and short. Figures holding Asoro are often depicted on Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (bronze relief plaques), sometimes in battle scenes and at ceremonies and festivals.

Akohẹn, or ivory horns, are played by members of the Ikpakoen (guild of ivory hornblowers), while Oko, or flutes, are played by members of the Ikpeziken (guild of royal flute players). Among the Emwin Arhe (royal treasures), Oko and Akohẹn are usually depicted being played by brass-cast figures representing members of these guilds, and also appear on Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (bronze relief plaques), Aken'ni Elao (carved altar tusks), and Urhotọ (altar tableau).

Today in Benin City, when a public procession leaves the palace, a court official may sound side-blown horns made from ivory. Historically, these instruments were also used during warfare, where they were played alongside Ema (drums) and Ẹroro (bells), producing a “cacophony of sound” whose “[t]he psychological effect of the barrage of noise magnified the size of Benin’s forces” ( ).

Some Oko/Akohẹn were also cast in brass by members of the Igun-Ẹrọnmwọn. However, these brass examples are understood not to have been functional instruments and could not have been blown like their ivory counterparts ( ).

Hornblower and flute-player figures recur frequently in the visual language of Emwin Arhe (royal treasures), particularly on Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (bronze relief plaques) and Aken’ni Elao (carved tusks). Horns and flutes made from ivory and brass have long been used in the Benin Kingdom, with ivory instruments continuing to be used today ( ).

Akohẹn are the largest type of horn and were used exclusively by the Ọba’s retainers before sacrifices in the palace. The Ikpakohẹn is a specialist hornblower responsible for playing the ivory Akohẹn, a role introduced during the reign of Ọba Eresonyẹn. According to Ọba Akẹnzua II, a group of six hornblowers from Use played these horns during Ugie (in Bradbury 1957, B.S. 85; ). Another type of horn, the Oko, was used by Ebo “to call witches and wizards to come to the crossroads” ( ).

Ọba Akẹnzua II (in Bradbury 1957, B.S. 85) also described the Eziken, a thin, side-blown fife or flute made from calabash or ivory. These instruments were played by members of the Ikpeziken, the guild of royal flute players, who performed as part of musical ensembles during ceremonies such as Ugie.

Many different kinds of Ẹrhu (headwear) are worn by the various figures depicted in the imagery of Benin royal artefacts. Through comparisons with ceremonial regalia still worn by chiefs and members of the royal court, including the Ọba himself, some Ẹrhu have been used to identify the different figures depicted. For example, the conical hat worn by high-ranking town chiefs as part of the pangolin regalia, still worn at ceremonies, is also visible on figures on some Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (bronze relief plaques) ( ). Other examples include the distinctive bell-shaped helmet associated with the Iyasẹ ( ). Figures who wear a shallow-brimmed hat and a cross have been identified as Ewua or Ohensa priests ( ).

Different kinds of helmets and headwear were worn by warriors, reflecting the many different ranks and roles in the army at any given time, as well as developing trends that were in turn represented on Emwin Arhe created at different points in time. Warrior figures wearing helmets covered in cowrie shells were carved on the Aken'ni Elao (carved tusks) (Blackmun 1984, p. 330), yet on the brass Ama, warriors are sometimes depicted wearing helmets made from crocodile hide or horsehair with a front plate (Osadolor in Plankensteiner 2007, cat. no. 238, p. 457). Helmets made from horsehair with a front plate are one of the more common types represented on the Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn, and the demand for black horse tails was noted by both Portuguese and British traders during the late 17th and 18th centuries (Osadolor in Plankensteiner 2007, cat. no. 238, p. 457). Other warriors depicted on Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn wear helmets with a rounded top, chinstrap, and sometimes also a feather tucked into the left side. These types of headwear are known as Ẹrhu Iyokuo.

Attire worn for battle also differed from that worn for ceremonial occasions, such as the pointed headwear worn in combination with an ornate leopard-head tunic by war chiefs. Depictions of figures wearing this attire on brass Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (bronze relief plaques) have been interpreted as representing the war chiefs’ participation in the war-ritual Isiokuo festival (Osadolor in Plankensteiner 2007, cat. no. 238, p. 457).

Another distinctive form of headwear is that worn by figures identified as leopard hunters on the brass Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (relief plaques). These large helmets cover almost all of the leopard hunters’ faces except for their noses, eyes, and upper lips, and are made of an unusual material that remains unidentifiable (Plankensteiner 2007, cat. nos. 68–69, p. 322).

European figures are also portrayed with distinctive hats, such as Portuguese three-cornered hats. These depictions reflect the artists’ keen observation and highlight the impact of European trade and military assistance (Ezra 1992).

Akọn Ẹkpẹn are necklaces or neck ornaments made of strung leopard’s teeth. They are worn by figures to signify their high rank and military prowess, as well as by their leaders, the Ezọmọ or Iyasẹ. They are often worn alongside quadrangular Ẹroro (bells) and Ohian Ẹkpẹn (leopard tunics).

The Akọn Ẹkpẹn is clearly and profoundly related to the symbolism of the Ẹkpẹn (leopard) and its association with the Ọba (king), who is metaphorically referred to as ‘ẹkpẹn ne owa’, the ‘leopard of the home’. On the other hand, the Ẹkpẹn is often referred to as the ‘king of the bush’, embodying ferocity, aggression, strength, and leadership—qualities attributed to the Ọba (Nevadomsky 1988). This intricate link between the leopard, the monarch, and his military leaders reinforces the complex hierarchy and spiritual authority central to Benin’s courtly art.

These motifs are known as Uhunmwu Ikpotoki in Edo, which translates as ‘Portuguese head’ in English. Portraits of Portuguese men, featuring only their heads and sometimes their shoulders, were used by artists as motifs on the Emwin Arhe (royal treasures), in particular on the Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (bronze relief plaques) and Aken'ni Elao (carved altar tusks). Also included here are a series of two or three conjoined spirals, which are interpreted as abstract forms of this motif.

One of the earliest suggestions that many of the European figures depicted on objects were Portuguese was made two years after the 1897 British Colonial Military Campaign on Benin City by the British Museum curators Charles Hercules Read and Ormonde Maddock Dalton (1899, p. 19), based on testimony from seven chiefs in the aftermath of the military campaign. The long, straight hair, beards, and domed hats together led to the identification of these representations as Europeans (von Luschan 1919, pp. 54–57; Ezra 1992, p. 246).

When included within the visual imagery of the Emwin Arhe, the Portuguese are associated with the new Atlantic trade and the consequent wealth that emerged following first contact with the Portuguese in the late 15th century. For this reason, Portuguese heads are also often associated with the sea deity Olokun. Eisenhofer (2007, p. 59) argued that the Portuguese figures and heads as motifs on the royal treasures are symbols of the king’s power: “these depictions of foreigners helped to build and strengthen the king’s image.”

When incorporated into the design of the Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (bronze relief plaques), Curnow (1997, p. 48) instead argued that these motifs could in fact indicate events that took place during Ọba Esigie’s reign. Ọba Esigie is associated with the Portuguese, as they became increasingly important during his reign, assisting with battles against the Igala from Idah, bringing Catholicism to Benin, and introducing weaponry such as guns and cannons, which were instrumental in the expansion of the kingdom.

Ebe Amẹ refers to a wide variety of plants, particularly the leaves of the water fern or river leaf, found in riverine areas of southern Nigeria ( ). Artists from the Igun-Ẹrọnmwọn used these as a decorative motif in the background of most Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (bronze relief plaques). The petals of the Ebe Amẹ, like the points of the ἀghàdàgháda (crossroads), represent the four cardinal directions: north, east, south, and west. The number four plays a foundational role in the Edo calendar, which is structured around four market days ( ).

Igan (feathers) are commonly depicted tucked into the headdresses and hats of chiefs represented on Emwin Arre (royal treasures). These feathers are from the Oɛɣohɔ (vulturine fish eagle) and symbolise respected old age and proper chieftaincy ( ).